The Placement Of Blame By Homer s Odyssey - 1487 Words

The Placement of Blame Blame can always be placed several different ways, and the accused and accusers of situations battle this all the time in literature. In one text however, several arguments can be made for one side of this ever-present schism. In this particular book, more arguments can be made to assign blame to one side of the argument rather than the other. In Homer’s Odyssey, mortal men cause their own misfortune. One way mortal men cause their own misfortune is by disobeying Odysseus, their leader. They, Odysseus’ crew, did this several times, but two instances significantly stand out in the argument of assigning blame. Before reaching Thrinakia, the island of Helios, Odysseus told his men of the warnings he had received about†¦show more content†¦During his visit to the underworld, Odysseus was informed of one of his most formidable enemies: desire. Teiresias plainly told him that â€Å"if [he could] contain [his] own desire, and contain [his] companions†¦ [they] might all make [their] way back to Ithaca† (Homer 171). When they finally saw the island, Odysseus did feel the desire to stop at the island, but tried to heed the warnings he received. His men however did not feel the same way he did. His me pestered him until he felt they had â€Å"[forced him] to it† but in reality he was just making an excuse to give in to his desires† (Homer 193). After indulging in his (and his crew’s) desires, he thought they would soon proceed off the island, however this was not the case. While exploring the island, his food deprived crew came upon the cattle of Helios, and being starving, began to cook and eat them, even sacrificing a part to the gods. Odysseus was walking back to their camp on his own when â€Å"the pleasant savor of cooking meat came drifting around [him], and [he] cried out [his] grief aloud to the gods immortal (Homer 194). Once he smelled the meat he knew that the horrific actions that were predicted would come true. All these things happened because Odysseus’ crew did not follow the instruction of their leader and instead followed their desires, but an even worse fate comes true when they disobey the gods themselves. With the warnings he received from the gods and Teiresias the seer, Odysseus tried to

Civil Rights Heroes By Jonathan Kozol - 1504 Words

The names Martin Luther King, Rosa Parks, Langston Hughes, Jackie Robinson, Fannie Lou Hamer and Thurgood Marshall are all civil rights heroes, not to be forgotten. However, Jonathan Kozol reveals that the schools he has had experience with that are named after these civil rights champions are actually dishonoring the dead. Professor Gary Orfield indicates that schools that are comprised mostly of minority students, less than 1% white, are essentially â€Å"apartheid schools.† There is a reciprocal action, â€Å"To give up on integration†¦.requires us to consciously and deliberately accept segregation†(Orfield and Eaton, 20). It is noted that some of the reasons New York has this problem is due to government enforced school boundaries, housing segregation and non-enforced fair housing laws. Thus, the schools are named after the heroes in a show of respect and honor, yet their segregation is a dishonor to the namesakes. The racial isolation of the students le aves them feeling hidden, unwanted and inferior. This is a dishonor to those students and the people who fought so persistently for equal opportunities. Among other injustices, some schools in the South Bronx and other areas do not have basic essentials needed to conduct a safe environment ripe for learning. The apartheid schools are unsafe and underfunded, lacking enough rooms, chairs, play areas, libraries and enriching programs such as art and music. The funding disparity is saddening; with the Board of Education

Strategic Corporate Social Responsibility

Question: Discuss about theStrategic Corporate Social Responsibility. Answer: Introduction From time to time organizations are bound to respond to opportunities and threats that arise in the dynamic environment in which they operate. The modern workplace environment has emerged as quite challenging for organizations. There are several pressures to which Modern organizations continue to be exposed to, and on which they must compete. Businesses continue to come up with organizational responses to counter these opportunities and threats. Business pressures are the factors that affect business operations. This essay will focus on some pressures faced by organizations and remedies that businesses have to counter them. Corporate social responsibility. This is organizations responsibility for the impacts of its decisions and actions on the society and the environment. From their operations business are bound to impact on the environment and communities in a number of ways (Crane,2008). Corporate social responsibility has emerged as a factor for organization success or failure. From the increasing levels of community awareness, there has been a growing emphasis on businesses to act responsibly in their dealings, with organizations that are socially responsible becoming a favorite for many consumers. This and various others government legislations have put immense pressures on organizations to act responsibly for them to compete on the same level with their competitors. The stakeholder theory of corporate social responsibility described by Edward freeman is focused on business stakeholders or the individuals who are likely to affect or be affected by business operations. This theory lays emphasis on t he obligations that can be imposed on organizations by these stakeholders, their rights with regard to the actions of an organization as well as their genuine claims on the business. In short, this theory focuses on how these stakeholders can control the operations of an organization (Chandler Werther, 2013). Organizations are therefore being pressured each day to minimize their negative impact and maximize their positive impact on the environment and the community. Strategies. Organizations or managers have at their disposal several strategies that they can put in place to meet the demands of their various stakeholders. Philanthropic responsibility requires organizations to come up with projects that support the welfare of the communities in which they operate (Lee Kotler,2013). Organizations can initiate education support programs such as offering scholarships to the needy members of the society in order to facilitate their education and their ability to transform their communities. Apart from education organizations can also support healthcare programs such as building community-based health centers as well as contributing funds towards other community initiatives. Organizations can also act responsibly by ensuring that their actions have minimal impact on the environment. They can do this by adopting recycling programs to minimize the wastes generated from business operations, the can also ensure that they minimize consumption of resources as much as possible to avoid affect the quality of life lived by the future generations as a result of depletion of natural resources. Organizations can also adapt usage of alternative sources of energy that do avoid depletion of natural resources and the subsequent negative impacts that come with it (Visser Institute for Corporate Culture Affairs,2010). Changing nature of the workforce. The needs of organizations workforce are increasingly becoming diversified. Among the demand that has been brought about by this diversification is the need for employees to be more empowered (Huq, 2010).While traditionally employees were seen as people who were to follow orders from their managers, modern workplace brought immense pressure on organizations to involve employees in decision making and view them as partners instead of subordinates. Employees want to be more involved in decision-making and other operations of the organization and because of this, there has been increasing pressure on organizations to empower their employees.(Wodden, 2009) views the implementation of empowerment strategies by organizations as an attempt to maintain a shared vision, institutional recognition, organizational support, knowledge, and learning. Employee empowerment involves giving employees power, information, reward, and knowledge and asserts that without th ese four there can be a hindrance of employee empowerment. According to Kanters theory of structural empowerment, leaders powers grow based on the leader's ability to share the power through empowerment. He further states that empowerment enables employees to make informed decisions and become more productive hence benefiting not only themselves but also their organization (Pettinger, 2012). Strategies. There are several strategies that organizations can employ to respond to the increasing empowerment demands at the modern workplace Employee training and development is one of the strategies that organizations have to meet these demands. Frequent training opportunities capacitate employees to go about their assigned duties and responsibilities with much ease and without having to consult their managers frequently. Employees require training to be equipped with the required skills for the assigned tasks. Apart from training, authority is also a strategy that can be applied to empower employees. There has been increasing demand for responsibilities followed by Authority from employees as a result of the diversifications at the modern workplace. Organizations/Mangers can ensure that that they give sufficient authority to employees to enable them to make decisions on how well they can complete their assigned tasks instead of concentrating all the authority at the top. Manager s can also make sure that they maintain a personal touch with their employees, encourage and constantly give positive feedback about their performance. This can be an effective strategy to empower them and develop them professionally. As noted by expectancy theory, managers can also build confidence in their employees to make them more productive and improve their job satisfaction (Rainer Cegielski,2011). Conclusion In conclusion, there has been increasing pressure on organizations regarding their interaction with both their internal and external environments. These pressures can contribute to the failure or success of organizations depending on how they are able to handle them. Organizations that are socially responsible have continued to enjoy more fruitful interactions with their stakeholders while the pressure to be socially responsible has continued to increase for those that are not. Changing nature of workforce has also made it necessary for organizations to devise appropriate strategies such as empowerment in order to reduce employee turnover and improve productivity. Reference List Chandler, D. B., Werther, W. B. J. (2013). Strategic Corporate Social Responsibility: Stakeholders, Globalization, and Sustainable Value Creation. Crane, A. (2008). The Oxford handbook of corporate social responsibility. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Huq, R. (2010). Employee empowerment: The rhetoric and the reality. Axminster, Devon: Triarchy Press. Johnson, P., Wood, G., Brewster, C., Brookes, M. (2009). The rise of post-bureaucracy: theorists' fancy or organizational praxis?. International Sociology, 24(1), 37-61. Rainer, R. K., Cegielski, C. G. (2011). Introduction to information systems. Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley Sons Pettinger, R. (2012). Business studies for dummies. Chichester: Wiley. Lee, N., Kotler, P. (2013). Corporate social responsibility: Doing the most good for your company and your cause. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley. Visser, W., Institute for Corporate Culture Affairs. (2010). The A to Z of corporate social responsibility. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K: Wiley.

Lorenzo Colbert Jr. Essays (637 words) - Americas, Structure

Lorenzo Colbert Jr. Speech Writing Assignment #1 Red Cross The emotions that I am experiencing after listening to the broadcast are confusion and frustration. I feel confused because the Red Cross is supposed to be an organization that is non-profitable. The confusion rises when I think of exactly where the money actually went. I am frustrated because we as a people look to Red Cross to assist us when needed not take advantage. It doesn't make sense how you take all of that money yet continue to let those in Haiti suffer and wait on the assistance the promised. The reporter sounded very credible. She provided endless facts to back up every statement she made. She also has used voice recordings to make her argument more trustworthy. I feel as if she knows exactly what she is discussing and has done an extensive amount of research. I can tell that she has dug deep to get the information about this faulty organization. The Red Cross spokesperson did not sound credible whatsoever. The spokesperson could not answer questions directly and deflected them with ease. The spokesperson also went in circles to answer questions so they would not s lip up and say the wrong thing on recordings. For the spokesperson to be a part of Red Cross, they did not sound very concerned about the ongoing issues in Haiti. The spokesperson only could revert back to one thing to support their end of the argument. The most disturbing thing to me about the broadcast was the information that Red Cross was withholding. Even though there were facts proving that they did not do what they said they would do, they were still in denial of what they were being accused. I can't believe that they would knowingly still let the people of Haiti suffer when they have more than enough resources to help. If Red Cross is not being truthful about what they say they are going to do, then what and who else are these non-profit organizations hiding from us. Based off what I heard from the broadcast, non-profit organizations are full of lies. They are manipulative and they deceive you into thinking they are for the greater good. They will take your money in surplus and only do enough to get the media attention then they will take the rest of the money for themselves. They don't have our best interest at heart at all. My knowledge of Red Cross has never been much but that they have been assisting people for a long time now. What I already knew and believed was that they were an organization that sticks their necks out for people in need of assistance. But after hearing the broadcast, I now know that it all just a disguise to acquire more money. Red Cross takes from people who would give their last to help others in need and doesn't use your money for what you intended on it going to. A. I will tell everyone I know who cares about assisting others. I would also inform everyone who donates to these non-profit organizations so they can know exactly what goes on behind closed doors. I'm willing to tell anyone with a heart and who cares. B. I would tell them because people need to become aware of what's really going on in our corrupt society. They also have the right to know where their money is actually going and not going. Information like this should not be shadowed and should be out for the world to see clear as day. C. The answer is self-explainable. People should know when they are being ripped off. Especially by the people they are actually putting their trust into.

Why Julius Caesar Was Assassinated

Why Julius Caesar Was Assassinated Introduction Gaius Julius Caesar remains one of the most important figures for his prolific conquests that he made during his life as an emperor and probably his untimely-preplanned death. This was a genius in making, combating with not only the minute Egypt but also with world giants like Germany, Gaul, and Britain (Appian 1949, 115).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Why Julius Caesar Was Assassinated specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Nevertheless, his ingenuity did not save him from death in the hands of his enemies in disguise as friends, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinu, when they descended on him on Ides of March. These two men, in company of a pack of others, carefully designed the death of Caesar behind his back. However, why would they want to kill their friend? It is important to note that, Caesar’s leadership or tyrannical rule policies had nothing to do with his death. Despite his leader ship skills, all seemed to be well with Romans. All the indicators of a thriving economy were prevalent in Rome. From creation of thousands of employment opportunities to economic stimulation through export and import, confidence levels amongst Romans were rising by the day and every one seemed to be happy save for some leadership flaws here and there, which are common in any leadership. These leadership flaws could not move anyone to rebel against and plot assassination of the emperor. Even though there are many schools of thought giving different reasons as to why Caesar was assassinated, the most compelling school of thought is the one stating that, Caesar was assassinated because his assassins wanted power. All other malicious claims directed to Caesar were only to cover the truth. Brutus and Cassius were formerly enemies to Caesar and after he defeated Pompey, they swore allegiance to him but their initial rebellion did not go away and this is evident from the assassination the y carried out. Why Assassination The fact that the men that assassinated Caesar wanted some grounds to accuse him and justify their assassination, implies that they had to plot how to win other people’s hearts and allegiance. Unfortunately, Caesar made many gullible mistakes exposing him to the wiles of these assassins. Many a times he failed to read signs that would signify impeding danger. In the opinion of the writer of this paper, nothing Caesar would say or do that would avert his inevitable death. Brutus and Cicero were very much aware of the damage they would cause to Caesar once they managed to brand him a tyrant (Yavetz 1983, 186). Therefore, the only thing that these two men needed was to come up with a strategy that would subject Caesar to public ridicule and then attack him after gaining enough support. To do this, they had to convince other senators to get into their scheme; fortunately, they got huge backing from senators, who joined them for different reasons.A dvertising Looking for essay on ancient history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to Nicholas of Damascus (1964), the chief principals of this plot were men who knew for sure that if Caesar were dead, then they would gain power to run the nation. This persuaded many senators to consent to the plot of killing their emperor. Other people agreed to the plot because they were still angry because of losing their relatives and friends in the civil war. Therefore, to end such impunity, they wanted to be led through democracy, not despotism. However, Nicholas of Damascus (1964) notes that these were mere cover-ups, the fact is that these people were hypnotized by the promise of ascending to power and they would find any excuse to assent to the plot. Moreover, some people joined the plot not because they had anything against Caesar, but because they loved the pioneers of the plot. Interestingly, men who had been genu ine friends to Caesar also took part in the plot. How did this happen? After Caesar forgave the likes of Brutus and Cassius who had been his enemies and gave them powers in his authority, the men who had remained loyal felt betrayed. They could not understand this form of kindness. When Cassius approached them to take part in the plot, they gave in easily for they wanted to revenge what Caesar had done to them. It is unfortunate that these loyal Caesar friends could not enjoy the good reaps from the war and by joining the plot; they knew they would access power and finally enjoy what they had labored for all that long. Finally, after spurring people from all lifestyles into rebellion, Brutus and Cassius had to fool Caesar into stupid acts that would leave him exposed (Taylor 1949, 173). This opens up the next element of this conspiracy; that is, the plot. In the Greek culture, no man was to become a king as long as he lived (Yavetz 1983, 193). Wittingly, these assassins painted Caes ar as a king by offering him several honors. Unfortunately, Caesar gave in to the ill plans of these brutes and as time went on, he started acting against the law, something that would cost him life. The disregard for the law would give the assassins a foothold to censure him. The conspirators started by voting on how Caesar would appear in public. According to the vote passed, Caesar was to appear in all public places wearing exultant attire and sit in the chair of state. The aim of this vote was to make bring him close to people who would easily fault him as he mingled with them often. Additionally, they bestowed on him the power and right to â€Å"offer the so-called spolia opima at the temple of Jupiter Feretrius, as if he had slain some hostile general with his own hand. To have lectors that always carried the laurel and after the Feriae Latinae, to ride from Albanum to the city mounted on a charger† (Cassius Dio 1949, 12). This meant that his status was elevated almost to a state of a king. This was just but the beginning of the honors Caesar received.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Why Julius Caesar Was Assassinated specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More To hypnotize Caesar completely, the conspirators named him the father of the nation. This was followed by inscribing his image in all the coins used in Rome around that time. Additionally, they passed a vote that Caesar’s birthday was to be celebrated by offering public sacrifice and his statue was to stand in all cities. Two of Caesar’s statues were to stand in all temples one signifying him as a savior of people and the other as a savoir of the city under siege. A temple was to be built in his honor to symbolize peace. To cap it all, they appointed him the high priest and conferred powers to censure life to him alone. Mistakenly, Caesar accepted all these accolades with unfathomed gullibility. This saw the passing of t he law that required prayers be made to him and he accepted the garbs worn by kings. Finally, after a series of honors that Caesar accepted readily, they â€Å"addressed him outright as Julian Jupiter and ordered a temple to be consecrated to him and to his Clemency† (Cassius Dio 1949, 16). The motive behind all these awards was to paint Caesar as a king or a god, something that would attract disapproval readily, hence justifying their assassination. Actions of these people spoke loudly and it was evident that they did not have any good faith in what they were doing. â€Å"Others, and the majority, followed the courses mentioned because they wished to make him envied and disliked as quickly as possible, that he might the sooner perish† (Renard 1987, 568). This explains clearly the motive behind these accolades. However, this was not the only reason why these senators gave Caesar all these honors. Going back to Caesar’s life as an emperor, he was always under the watch of a guard. This meant that the senators could not meet him whatsoever; hence, they would not get chance to carry out the assassination. After receiving many honors, Caesar was convinced that these people would never try to eliminate him (Taylor 1949, 175). Therefore, he let his guard leave for he was now comfortable in the presence of the senators, who had apparently become his friends. As time went by, he dismissed all other guards and now he would remain under the watch of knights and senators. Caesar’s gullibility continued to portray itself as he consistently became mesmerized by the â€Å"kindness† of his subjects. However, it did not take long for these power-hungry assassinators to find a loophole in what they would easily exploit at the expense of this gullible emperor.Advertising Looking for essay on ancient history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More One evening these conspirators approached Caesar to explain why they would carry some of the house businesses in his absence to show that they worked involuntarily as opposed to compulsory duty (Suetonius 1913, 77). However, Caesar did not wake up from his seat and this dismayed many of them. Sympathizers of Caesar tried to explain that he could not walk because he had a bout of diarrhea; nevertheless, they could not justify these claims because he eventually stood up and walked without support. These assassins pretended to be dismayed by this act of pride; however, this is all they wanted from the beginning; a foothold to accuse Caesar. Well, they got it fully later when Caesar accepted to be made a dictator for life. Nevertheless, the end was yet to come. Some of the people still supported Caesar and the conspirators had to look for a way to embitter them. The next course of action was well plotted. As aforementioned, among the Romans, there could not be a king for this was outrig ht scorn to the tribunes. Then the time came, and the senators tried to brand Caesar a king but he refused vehemently. However, after scrutinizing the events, it appears that Caesar wanted the title. Firstly, it would be expected of him to rebuke such people, put them into prison, or worse kill them (Adcock 1951, 693). However, he did not do anything to them. This showed that he was pleased by the title; something that caused many people to disdain him. To cover up his behavior, Caesar told people that he was not a king but only a Caesar. Even though he took some actions against the first people to call him a king, the measures were not severe as expected for he only relieved them of their duties as tribunes and banned them from public speaking. He went ahead to rub their names from tribune-ship; however, this did not quell the mounting disapproval among citizens. Did he really dissent the title? The answer to this question is no! If Caesar were totally, against the title, he would come out clearly and refuse it. However; Antony with his fellow priests saluted him as king and surrounding his brows with a diadem said: â€Å"The people give this to you through my hands.† He answered that Jupiter alone was king of the Romans and sent the diadem to him to the Capitol, yet he was not angry and caused it to be inscribed in the records that the royalty presented to him by the people through the consul he had refused to receive. It was accordingly suspected that this had been done by some prearranged plan and that he was anxious for the name but wished to be somehow compelled to take it, and the consequent hatred against him was intense (Cassius Dio 1949, 17). This shows that he somehow accepted the title â€Å"king†; hence, making him a tyrant. Thus, the assassination would not be branded as such, but it would be called tyrannicide. However, Caesar was still popular amongst middle and lower classes and they vowed to fight Brutus and his team. The fact t hat Brutus went to organize troops in Greece to topple Antony is a clear indication that all he wanted was power. Conclusion Despite his ingenuity in conquering his enemies, Caesar could not deal with his closest enemies who disguised as friends. They led him into believing that they liked and honored him by awarding him with several accolades until they won his trust. First, they had to win his trust to a point of him letting go of his guards. This would ensure that the senators gained access to Caesar and have the opportunity to kill him. Luckily, this worked well for them as they accomplished it. Secondly, they had to paint Caesar as a tyrant in the eyes of the citizens to justify their assassination, which in effect it would be termed as tyrannicide. They also accomplished this by branding him a ‘king†, a title that he was not supposed to hold. Their craftiness was aided in part by Caesar’s gullibility and failure to read the two sided of the coin. There is cl ear indication that Caesar wanted to be called a king and this was the biggest mistake that he made. However, this assassination was inevitable and nothing he would have done to prevent it. It was a political attack where the assassinators were power hungry and the only way they could gain it was through assassination. However, they failed in their bid to rule Rome as opposition mounted against them leading to a series of wars. Bibliography Adcock, F. 1951. Caesars Dictatorship. Cook, S. Charlesworth, P. Ed. The Cambridge Ancient History, New York: Cambridge University Press 9(2): 691-740. Appian. 1949. The Civil Wars. 111-117 Cassius Dio. 1944. â€Å"The Accounts of Dio.† 1-11 Nicolaus of Damascus. 1984. Life of Augustus. Bellemore, Jane. Bristol Classical Press, 26-50. Renard, Marcel. 1987. Caesar’s Personal Enemies on the Ides of March. 568-573 Suetonius, Tranquillus. 1913. Life of Caesar. New York: Loeb Classical Library, 76-79. Taylor, Lily R. 1949. Party Politic s in the Age of Caesar. Berkeley: University of California Press. 172-179. Yavetz, Z. 1983. Julius Caesar and his Public Image. London: Thames and Hudson.

Jane Boleyn, Lady Rochford - Tudor Lady-in-Waiting

Jane Boleyn, Lady Rochford - Tudor Lady-in-Waiting Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford, born Jane Parker (circa 1505 - February 13, 1542), was a noblewoman and a courtier at the court of Henry VIII of England. She married into the Boleyn/Howard family and spent the rest of her life embroiled in their intrigues. Early Life Jane was born in Norfolk, though the year is not recorded: record-keeping was imperfect at the time, and a daughters birth was not significant enough. Her parents were Henry Parker, 10th Baron  Morley, and his wife Alice (nee Alice St. John). Like most girls of noble birth, she was likely educated at home; records are scarce. She was sent to court sometime before her fifteenth birthday to join the court of Katherine of Aragon. The first record of Jane being noted at court came in 1520, where she was part of the royal party that traveled to France for the Field of the Cloth of Gold meeting between Henry and Francis I of France. Jane was also recorded as participating in a court masquerade pageant in 1522, which indicates she was likely considered very pretty, although no confirmed portraits of her survive. Joining The Boleyns   Her family arranged her marriage to George Boleyn in 1525. At the time, Georges sister Anne Boleyn was a leader in court society, but had not yet caught the kings eye; her sister Mary had recently been Henrys mistress.  As a respected member of a powerful family, George earned a wedding present from the king: Grimston Manor, a house in Norfolk. By 1526 or 1527, Annes power had increased, and with it the fortunes of all the Boleyns. George Boleyn was given the title Viscount Rochford in 1529 as a mark of royal favor, and Jane became known as Viscountess Rochford (Lady Rochford was the appropriate form of direct address). Despite all these material gains, Janes marriage was probably an unhappy one. George was unfaithful, and historians have debated the exact nature of his debauchery: whether he was promiscuous, gay, violent, or some combination thereof. Nevertheless, the marriage did not result in any children. Boleyn Rise and Fall In 1532, when Henry VIII entertained the French king Francis I at Calais, Anne Boleyn, and Jane Boleyn appeared together. Henry finally divorced Katherine, and Anne married Henry in 1533, at which time Jane was a lady of the bedchamber to Anne. The nature of her relationship with Anne is not recorded. Some speculate that the two were not close and that Jane was jealous of Anne, but Jane did risk temporary exile from court to help Anne banish one of Henrys younger mistresses. Annes marriage to Henry began to fail, however, and Henrys attentions began to turn to other women. Anne miscarried in 1534 and had discovered that Henry was having an affair. Somewhere along the line, Janes loyalties shifted away from the faltering queen. By 1535, Jane had definitely sided against Anne, when Jane was part of a Greenwich demonstration protesting that Mary Tudor, not Annes daughter Elizabeth, was the true heir. This incident led to a stay in the Tower for Jane and for Annes aunt, Lady William Howard. In May 1536, the Boleyns fell. George was arrested and accused of incest and treason, and Anne was accused of witchcraft, adultery, treason, and incest. Some have concluded that the idea that Anne and her brother George were committing incest may have been spread by Jane. While this is unknown, Janes testimony was likely key evidence used in Thomas Cromwells case against Anne.  Another charge against Anne at her trial, though it was not spoken in court, was that Anne had told Jane that the king was impotent - a piece of information Cromwell had obtained from Jane.   George Boleyn was executed on May 17, 1536, and Anne on May 19.  Janes motivations in this betrayal are lost to history: she may have been terrified by Henrys vengeance, but the reputation she gained in history was as a jealous harpy who schemed against her in-laws. Lady To Later Queens After her husbands death, Jane Boleyn retired to the country. She was in serious financial trouble and obtained some help from her father-in-law. Apparently, Thomas Cromwell was also helpful to the woman who had been helpful to him in making the case against Anne, and she was allowed to continue using her aristocratic title. Jane became a lady of the bedchamber to Jane Seymour and was selected to bear the train of the Princess Mary at the queens funeral. She was lady of the bedchamber to the next two queens, as well. When Henry VIII wanted a quick divorce from his fourth wife, Anne of Cleves, Jane Boleyn provided evidence, saying that Anne had confided in her in a roundabout way that the marriage had not actually been consummated. This report was included in the divorce proceedings. Now firmly with a reputation for eavesdropping and meddling, Jane became a crucial figure in the household of Henry VIIIs young, new wife, Catherine Howard  - a cousin of Anne Boleyn.  In that role, she was found to have been a go-between arranging visits between Catherine and her love Thomas Culpeper, finding them meeting places and hiding their meetings. She may even have instigated or at least encouraged their affair, for reasons unknown. Downfall and Depictions When Catherine was accused of the affair, which amounted to treason against the king, Jane  first denied knowledge of it. The interrogation of Jane over this matter caused her to lose her sanity, raising questions whether shed be well enough to be executed. A letter to Culpeper was produced in Catherines handwriting, in which was found the sentence, Come when my Lady Rochford is here, for then I shall be at leisure to be at your commandment. Jane Boleyn was charged, tried, and found guilty. Her execution took place on Tower Green on February 3, 1542, after Jane made a prayer for the king and alleged she had falsely testified against her husband. She was buried at the Tower of London, near Catherine, George, and Anne.   After her death, the image of Jane as the jealous accuser and manipulator firmly took hold and was accepted as fact for centuries. Most fictional portrayals of her have depicted a jealous, unstable, vicious woman at worst and an easily manipulated tool of powerful men at best. In recent years, however, biographers and historians have revisited her legacy and questioned whether or not Jane simply did the best she could to survive one of the most dangerous courts in history. Jane Boleyn Fast Facts Full Name:  Jane Boleyn, Viscountess RochfordBorn:  circa 1505 in Norfolk, EnglandDied:  February 13, 1542 on Tower Green, LondonSpouse: George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford (m. 1525 - 1536)Occupation:  English nobility; lady of the bedchamber for four queensKnown for:  Sister-in-law to Anne Boleyn who may have testified in her downfall; lady-in-waiting to five of Henry VIIIs queens Sources Fox, Julia.  Jane Boleyn: The True Story of the Infamous Lady Rochford.  London, Weidenfeld Nicolson, 2007.Weir, Alison. The Six Wives of Henry VIII.  New York, Grove Press, 1991.

Mid Term Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Mid Term - Essay Example ations and it is an accepted fact that most of the law enforcement agencies are reluctant in appointing African- American officers in their organizations because of their concern over such intergroup conflicts. Discipline is the main requirement, of a law enforcement organization and the introduction of more African-American into such organizations may result in conflicts between the African-Americans and the Americans which will damage the discipline in the organization. African-Americans have a strong belief that their community is discriminated in America because of the racial issues. An officer who experiences discrimination within his organization may behave rudely against the white community while enforcing the law and order. The feeling of isolation will force them keep an aggressive nature against the white people. Apart from English language, foreign language proficiency is a must for the employees of a law enforcement agency. Most of the African-American may not have good proficiency either in English or in any other foreign language which prevented the agencies from appointing more people from these communities into the organization. MS-13 gang (named after La Mara a street in El Salvador and 13 th street in Los Angeles) is one of the most dangerous and organized criminal groups in America. It is an international criminal group with roots in El Salvador, Mexico, and Honduras like countries. This group originated in El Salvador in order to participate in their civil war and when the war approaches to an end they shifted operations to the nearest country, Honduras. Honduras government has adopted strict measures to control their activities which forced them to move to Mexico. â€Å"The Mara Salvatrucha gang (MS-13) moved into the Los Angeles area in the late 1980s as immigrants from El Salvador began arriving in the city† (MS13 Gang), MS 13 gang members often put numerous tattoos on their body and also wear blue and white colour clothes (colours of El

Body Image & the Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Body Image & the Media - Essay Example The perception by the media resulted to mental disorder, which are expressed by the way individuals behave, express and respect themselves. Media, therefore, have the tendency of creating new cultural beliefs and behavior in the society. Appearance is sometimes deceptive. The author demonstrates bluntly the major factor that influences the perception of individual appearance and the acceptable and modest body size. Since 1950s, advertisement and television programs have created a dramatic impact on the American society in terms of mode of dressing and insight regarding the humanity. In this perceptive, the influence of the media destroyed various cultures in the society and eschewing a new culture with its own perception, social constructed roles and behavior of individuals based on their gender or sex. The article identified that for decades, the American society has been bombarded with media driven depictions. The major concept that drives the depiction is what constitutes as the acceptable female behavior and characteristic as well as male desired traits and behaviors. Media have great influence on the mental image of females as a thin body image as depicted by the fashion models. There is accentuation on the mer its and attractiveness of large breast. In males, media altered the accepted image of a male to a tall, slender and masculine body. The impacts of media on the American society have generated an intriguing argument by various scholars and authorities. Parents, cultural critics and medical authority for decades have criticized the marketing ability of media on the perception of human being and mental health of the American society. In this perspective, the socio-cultural standards of feminine beauty have been presented in all manners of media demonstrating women with image that is considered as being the ideal body. Media creates a flaw mental image assimilated by media-driven culture. The images used for

By methane steam reforming Essay Example for Free

By methane steam reforming Essay Reformation Of Gas: The first step embrace overhaul of natural gas, in this step hydrogen is counter with steam at 750-800 Â °C, by this reaction natural gas and a mixture of Hydrogen (H2) and Carbon monoxide is attained. Water Gas Shift: In this stride the Carbon monoxide is reacted with steam first at High temperature 350 Â °C and then at low temperature 90-210 Â °C to form Hydrogen and Carbon dioxide. CO + H2O CO2 + H2 Purification: This step embrace the amputation of venomous products present in Gas such as sulphur (S), and chloride (Cl) then it is further purified to remove Carbon dioxide in. The exclusion of Carbon dioxide takes place in liquid absorption system. Then methanation takes place to remove all the residual of carbon dioxide and to get pure hydrogen Gas. (hydrogen. org) By Biomass Process Biomass a renewable organic supply, which consist of agriculture crop scum, for instance wheat straw, forest residues, special crops grown specifically for energy use, such as switch grass or willow trees; organic municipal solid waste; and animal wastes. The hydrogen can also beprepared from biomass process although this process is not commercially available now a days. Thermal decomposition: Breaking up of Organic substance under the reaction heat and coke takes place, the partial oxidation occurs due to occurrence of oxygen in reactor. Gasification: Initially methanol and various gases are obtained in the first step, and then they are reacted with Oxygen or Steam which produces mixture containing 20% H2, 20% CO, 10% CO2, almost 5% CH4 and 45% N. This is an unbalanced equation for Gasification process, C6H12O6 + O2 + H2O CO + CO2 + H2 + other species. Removal of Nitrogenous Compound: In this step Nitrogenous compounds are eliminated from mixture by their reaction with the mixture with pure Oxygen or steam. Then we obtained the hydrocarbons and the endothermic reaction of hydrocarbons yield a Gas rich in Hydrogen. (Hydrogen. org) CO + H2O CO2 + H2 Exothermic and Endothermic reactions in Steam reform process: In steam reform manufacturing of hydrogen both exothermic and endothermic effect takes place. The first reaction which is observed in system is highly endothermic reaction, in this reaction the heat is soak up by the system in order to initiate the reaction between hydrogen and carbon monoxide, the heat is endow with the system from its environment by burning overindulgence of methane. The subsequent type of reaction which is being observed in steam reform process is the exothermic reaction, it is observes during shift reaction which initiates the separation progression for removing carbon dioxide, during exothermic reaction it is observed that this reaction releases large amount of heat. After removal of all the impurities pure hydrogen is obtained. (Leanne M. Crosbie and Dr. Douglas Chapin, January15, 2003) Exothermic and Endothermic reactions in Biomass Process: The reaction which is usually seen in Biomass process is the endothermic reaction, in first step of obtaining hydrogen from Biomass process the breaking up of organic substance for doing so the large amount of heat is provided to the system, the system absorb heats so the bonds between organic compounds starts breaking. As in this reaction the heat is being absorb by the system to it is believed that in Biomass process of hydrogen manufacturing endothermic reaction Occurs. (Cutler. J. Cleveland, January 28, 2007). References: Hydrogen. org, Production of hydrogen retrieved from http://www. hydrogen. org/Knowledge/w-i-energiew-eng3. html Leanne M. Crosbie and Dr. Douglas Chapin, Hydrogen production from nuclear heat retrieved from http://www. mpr. com/pdf_files/hydrogen. pdf Cutler. J. Cleveland, Hydrogen production technology, retrieved from http://www. eoearth. org/article/Hydrogen_production_technology.

Plants and Superstitions Essay -- Botany

Plants and Superstitions For many years plants have played a large part in superstitions. Although, they are not so much believed now, as they used to be. They were used to help one's fortune, wealth and fertility. It is amazing that bread was ever eaten; there were so many superstitions about it. It was used to aid in all of these things and many more, It is ironic, however, that the one thing they worshipped and used to keep harm and disease away made them ill and killed some of them. When all of this happened they blamed another superstition, which was witchcraft. "Almost all of the witchcraft misunderstandings were caused by Christianity's persecution of those who refused to abandon pagan beliefs" (Zolar, 1995), but not in the case of the Salem Witch trials. In 1692 superstitions somehow became the way of thinking. The misuse of it led to the executions of many innocent people in this country. Witchcraft was the crime, for which they were wrongly accused. Fact Net Inc. (see Internet Source) defines superstitions as "Beliefs held despite evidence. They are based on the belief that some people, Plants, animals, stars, words, numbers or special things have magical powers, which contradicts what we know about the world." A mysterious illness overcame Salem, Massachusetts. Thrashing around, moaning, babbling, and crying made up what were called "convulsive fits," which suddenly occurred in eight girls daily. Hallucinations were also a part of their fits. (see Internet Source). Everyone was terrified. Doctors came to visit, but they did not know much about disease and medicines at that time. One doctor questioned the idea of witchcraft and soon rumors spread that there was a witch in town, or maybe even a group of them we... ...tific thinking has almost swept away the ignorance of superstitions that once kept people from learning about out world. Like in the case of the Salem Witch trials "When minds are poisoned by the ignorance of superstitions, terrible things happen" (see Internet Source). Bibliography Bennett, J.W. 1999. Pride and Prejudice: The story of ergot. Perspective in Biology and Medicine 42 (3): 333-355. Spanos, Nicholas P. 1983. Ergotism and the Salem witch panic: a critical analysis and an alternative conceptualization. Journal of the History of Behavioral Sciences 19 (4): 358-369. Starkey, Marion L. 1949. The Devil in Massachusetts, Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York. 39- 48, 138-158. Zolar.1995. Encyclopedia of signs, omens and superstitions. Carol Publishing Group, New York. 50-52,380. Internet Source: http://www.xenu.org/factnet/GEN/FILES/BOOKS/TRUE.TXT

Abdul Basit

Introduction McShane and Von Glinow state that â€Å"the best organizational structure depends on the organization’s external environment, size, technology, and strategy† (409). To identify the best organizational structure for Protege Engineering, I will first determine what ‘Organizational Structure’ means. In a second step I will analyze its elements and carve out the important components for the considered organization. Finally I will provide a conclusion and recommendation.Organizational Structures In general, organizational structure is related to the way that an organization organizes employees and jobs, so that its work can be performed and its goals can be met. McShane and Von Glinow define ‘Organizational Structure’ in more detail; they state that organizational structure â€Å"refers to the division of labor as well as the patterns of coordination, communication, workflow, and formal power that direct organizational activities† (386).To understand what this means we will have a look at each component. The division of labor is related to the â€Å"subdivision of work into separate jobs assigned to different people† (McShane and Von Glinow 386). The patterns of coordination refer to the coordinating of work activities between the employees where they divide work among themselves. This process requires coordinating mechanism to ensure the workflow, which means that everyone works in concert (McShane and Von Glinow 386).The primary means of coordination are informal communication which involves â€Å"sharing information on mutual tasks and forming common mental models to synchronize work activities†, Formal hierarchy which refers to the â€Å"assigning legitimate power to individuals, who then use this power to direct work processes and allocate resources†, and Standardization which involves the â€Å"creating routine patterns of behavior or output† (McShane and Von Glinow 387).We can admit that informal communication is necessary in no routine and ambiguous situations because employees can exchange large volume of information through face-to-face communication and other media-rich channels. Therefore informal communication is important for Protege Engineering because their work involve new and novel situations when developing specific solutions for each client. Even if informal communication is difficult in large firms it can be possible when keeping each production site small (McShane and Von Glinow 388).Now, that we identified what organizational structure means, and that informal communication is necessary for Protege Engineering, we need some more information of how structures differ from each other. McShane and Von Glinow state that â€Å"every company is configured in terms of four basic elements of organizational structure†; namely: span of control, centralization, formalization, and departmentalization (390). Further on, I will explain these four elements and carve out what this means for Protege Engineering.The span of control â€Å"refers to the number of people directly reporting to the next level hierarchy† (McShane and Von Glinow 390). Today’s research found out that a wider span of control (many employee directly reporting to the management) is more appropriate especially for companies with staff members that coordinate their work mainly through standardized skills and do not require close supervision – like the highly skilled employees of Protege Engineering (McShane and Von Glinow 390-391).However, McShane and Von Glinow also state that a wider span of control is possible when employees have routine jobs and a narrow span of control when people perform novel jobs. This statement is based on the need for frequent direction and supervision. Another influence on the span of control is the degree of interdependence among employees. Employees that perform highly interdependent work with one anoth er need a narrow span of control because they tend to have more conflicts with one another.I assume that the employees working for Protege Engineering do not require close supervision because they are highly educated – have university degrees in these fields and a few have doctorates; therefore, a wider span of control allows the employees to work in self-directed teams that coordinate mainly through informal communication and formal hierarchy plays a minor role (McShane and Von Glinow 390-391). Centralization â€Å"occurs when formal decision authority is held by a small group of people† (McShane and Von Glinow 393).Companies often decentralize when they become larger and their environment more complex; however, â€Å"different degrees of decentralization can occur simultaneously in different party of the organization†. In my opinion, the power of decision-making should be decentralized in the considered company because the mentioned projects demand highly spec ialized knowledge, which cannot be provided by the head of the organization. Formalization â€Å"is the degree to which organizations standardize behavior through rules, procedures, formal training, and related mechanism† (McShane and Von Glinow 393).Usually larger organizations tend to have more formalization because â€Å"direct supervision and informal communication among employees do not operate easily when larger numbers of people are involved†. Notwithstanding that Protege Engineering employs about 600 individuals, I assume that a high degree of formalization is not appropriate because their jobs cannot be standardized, every project is customized to the client and has therefore novel and new components.Another evidence against formalization is, that formalization tends to â€Å"reduce organizational flexibility, organizational learning, creativity and job satisfaction†, which the employees of Protege Engineering definitely need (McShane and Von Glinow 409 ). Regarding the first three elements of organizational structure we can admit that Protege Engineering should have an organic structure because organizations with â€Å"organic structures operate with a wide span of control, decentralized decision making, and little formalization† (McShane and Von Glinow 395).This structure works well in dynamic environments because they are very flexible to change, more compatible with organizational learning, high performance workplaces, and â€Å"quality management because they emphasize information sharing and an empowered workforce rather than hierarchy and status† (McShane and Von Glinow 395). Departmentalization â€Å"specifies how employees and their activities are grouped together† like presented in an organizational chart of the organization (McShane and Von Glinow 395).A functional structure organizes organizational members around specific knowledge or other resources, which enhances specialization and direct supervi sion; however, functional structure weakens the focus on the client or product (McShane and Von Glinow 396-397). A functional structure would not support Protege Engineering because the success of this company highly depends on especially developed products for its clients; therefore, this organization should focus on the satisfaction of its clients rather than focusing on organizing employees around specific resources.A divisional structure organizes groups of employees around geographic areas, clients or products in very flat team-based structures with low formalization. This structure seems to be very appropriate for Protege Engineering because it focuses employee’s attention on products or clients and self-directed teams with low formalization. However, there are some disadvantages that need to be considered, like duplicating resources and creating silos of knowledge. Conclusion and Recommendation In the introduction I stated that the best organizational structure depends on the organization’s external environment, size, technology, and strategy.We found out that Protege Engineering should have an organic organizational structure because a wide span of control, decentralized decision-making, and little formalization will organizes employees and jobs so that Protege Engineering work can best be performed and its goals can best be met. Furthermore, McShane and Von Glinow give the advice that â€Å"corporate leader should formulate and implement strategies that shape both characteristics of the contingencies as well as the organization’s resulting structure† (409). This advice is very valuable because the structure of an organization should follow its strategy and not vice versa. . Many organizations think that they integrate organizational cultures when merging or acquiring other companies. Explain what does integrating organizational cultures means? Under what conditions is this strategy most likely to succeed? Case 6: Merging Or ganizational Cultures Introduction Every organization has its own culture. According to McShane and Von Glinow organizational culture stands for â€Å"the values and assumptions shared within an organization† (416). When companies are merging with, or acquiring, other companies the likelihood is very high that the organizational cultures differ from each other.To avoid that the new company ends up with two different cultures, there need to be any kind of integrating organizational cultures. First I will explain what integrating organizational cultures means and second I will present the conditions under which this strategy is most likely to succeed. Finally, I will provide a conclusion and recommendation. Merging Organizational Culture The necessity of merging organizational cultures becomes clear when regarding that failures to coordinate activity, based on cultural conflict, contribute to the widespread failure of corporate mergers (Weber and Camerer 412).Differences in cul ture in an organization lead to consistent decreased performance for both employees after the merger, and there is an evidence of conflict from the differences in culture, which could be a possible source for the high turnover rate following mergers (Weber and Camerer 412). McShane and Von Glinow also state that â€Å"most mergers and acquisitions fail in terms of subsequent performance of the merged organization† and that this happens because leaders fail â€Å"to conduct due-diligence of the corporate cultures† (426).At this point, we can admit that some forms of integration may allow companies with different cultures to merge successfully. One strategy in avoiding cultural collisions is to conduct a bicultural audit. A bicultural audit is â€Å"a process of diagnosing cultural relations between companies and determining the extent to which cultural clashes will likely occur† (McShane and Von Glinow 427). The bicultural audit identifies cultural differences an d determines those that possibly result in conflict. In addition, it also identifies values that provide a common ground on which cultural foundations can be built.Finally, it identifies strategies and prepares action plans to bring the two merging cultures together (McShane and Von Glinow 427). In some cases the bicultural audit may identify that the two cultures are too different to merge effectively; however, the companies can still form a workable union, if appropriate merger strategies are applied (McShane and Von Glinow 427). Like the following illustration shows, McShane and von Glinow provide four main strategies to merge different corporate cultures successfully. Figure 4: Strategies for MergingDifferent Organizational Cultures Source: McShane and Von Glinow 428. The first strategy is Assimilation, which â€Å"occurs when employees at the acquired company willingly embrace the cultural values of the acquiring organization† (McShane and Von Glinow 427). This strategy is most likely to succeed when the employees of the acquired company are looking for improvement because they have a weak, dysfunctional culture and the acquiring company has a strong culture, which is aligned with the external environment (McShane and Von Glinow 427).The second strategy is Deculturation, which means that the acquiring company is â€Å"imposing their culture and business practices on the acquired organization† (McShane and von Glinow 428). However, this strategy rarely works because employees usually resist organizational change, especially regarding personal and cultural values. Sometimes deculturation may be necessary; for example, when the culture of the acquired company does not work effectively (McShane and von Glinow 428). The third strategy – and the strategy which the given case is asking for – is the Integration Strategy.This strategy is a combination of â€Å"the two or more cultures into a new composite culture that preserves the bes t features of the previous cultures† (McShane and Von Glinow 428). That sounds like a good compromise, but the integration strategy is â€Å"slow and potentially risky because there are many forces preserving the existing cultures† (McShane and Von Glinow 428). McShane and Von Glinow also state that â€Å"mergers typically suffer when organizations with significantly divergent corporate cultures merge into a single entity with a high degree of integration† (McShane and Von Glinow 427).This strategy works best when both sides can benefit from an integration strategy; for example, when the existing cultures of both companies are not optimal and could use some improvements. The negative aspects of the integration strategy – for example being very time-consuming – result from the employees being resistant to changes, or ambiguous rules which are also a source of conflict and often occur during mergers and acquisitions (McShane and Von Glinow 335).Howeve r, the integration strategy, which is the most effective combination of all existing cultures, is most likely to succeed when the â€Å"existing cultures can be improved† and members of the organization â€Å"are motivated to adopt a new set of dominant values† (McShane and Von Glinow 428). The fourth strategy is separation, which â€Å"occurs when the merging companies agree to remain distinct entities with minimal exchange of culture or organizational practices† (McShane and Von Glinow 428).This strategy is most suitable when the merging organizations operate in different industries or countries because cultures differ between industries and countries (McShane and Von Glinow 428). Conclusion and Recommendation The integration process of merging companies is a combination of the existing cultures into a new culture that maintains the best features of the previous cultures, and it is most likely to succeed when existing cultures already need improvement so that employees are motivated to accept change.This strategy is particularly challenging when the members of the organization are satisfied with their previous culture because they will be resistant to change. Another very important factor for the success of mergers is the level of commitments made by the employees. Therefore, employees should be brought into the process as early as possible (Badrtalei and Bates 314).

Multinational Expansion Of Companies Essay

Ghe increasing multinational expansion of companies requires individuals who can perform effectively across national borders by handling cross national job assignments (Stahl & Bjorkman 2006). Expatriates/international assignees are employees who work outside their national borders. A lot depends on human resource (HR) management in selecting appropriate workforce and rewarding them accordingly in company’s best interests. HR managers need to show expertise in choosing suitable personnel for international assignments based on employee’s personal characteristics, interests, overseas experience and the type international assignment. Moreover, it becomes the responsibility of HR managers to look after compensation packages, and compliance with regional work standards and government policies. Hence, it is necessary to review all these issues in detail to gain an idea on the role of HR professionals in relation to international assignees. Firstly, to understand the aspects of expatriate selection and functions, it is first necessary to review the reason for global expansion of companies and their requirements. Companies Go Global   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are various reasons for companies choosing international existence. They include increased pressure on costs, search for new markets, greater customer demands and product and service qualities, government policies, search and desire for technology development, worldwide communication and information flow, increasing global opportunities with interdependence of nations in trading blocs, integrating cultures and values leading to common consumer demands, availability of skilled workforce, decreasing trade barriers, and E-commerce (Briscoe & Schuler 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This increasing globalization requires companies to look for employees with ability to operate at varied conditions. Accordingly, various criteria are set for the selection of international assignees. International assignees may be parent-country nationals (PCNs), host-country nationals (HCNs) or third-country nationals (TCNs) Selection of International Assignees   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Human resource (HR) managers have a major role in selecting international assignees. The highly followed selection process includes self-selection, creating a candidate pool, technical skills assessment and making a mutual decision (Frazee 1998).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HR management has to consider several criterion before selecting the candidates, such as candidate’s maturity, ability to handle foreign languages, possession of favorable outlook on the international assignment by the expatriate and his/her family (Briscoe & Schuler 2004). Apart from these personal characteristics like health, desire for the assignment, individual resourcefulness and adaptability are very important.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   International assignees should have various qualities such as computer literacy, prudent negotiating skills, ability as a change agent, visionary skills and effective delegatory skills (Briscoe & Schuler 2004). Functions of International Assignees   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The functions of international assignees may include all or any of the following areas depending on job responsibilities. Technical responsibilities Managerial responsibilities Cultural responsibilities such as interacting with local nationals and local communities In general, global long term assignments may vary between two and five years. In long term assignments employees are generally loaned to the host company by the home company (Mullaney 2007, p. 3). The position and seniority of the assignee often determine the nature of the assignment package. Executive assignees are seen as prominent members of the local management team, whereas assignees at manager level or below are credited with career development opportunity. An Insight on the Roles of HR Managers In the current globalization arena, the role of human resource (HR) personnel in relation to international assignments should be viewed in specific perspectives: human resource personnel and international assignees, and the role of past experience in dealing with diverse employees. Whatever the role is, the basic requirements are openness to people, flexibility, autonomy, and career motivation (Frazee, 1998, p. 29). Firstly, the phases in selection of international assignees can be described as self-selection, creation of a candidate pool, assessment of technical skills, and making a mutual decision. Firstly, the candidate has to self analyze whether he or she can be a global assignee. Moreover, the favorability of family and other conditions need to be evaluated. In selecting global assignees, it is better to opt for self-selection than traditional selection. While traditional selection in meant for choosing assignees by employers through various interviews and tests, self-selection promotes self-assessment of candidates and decide on whether or not to go for the next step for selection process (Frazee, 1998, p. 29). The factors of self-selection include personality and individual characteristics, career and family issues. According to Johns, in case of personnel who shift from another position to HR, the experience in past positions and the change of influencing abilities pertaining to the post may help perform better as a HR manager in dealing with employees from different backgrounds (as cited in Frazee, 1998, p. 52).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Furthermore, HR managers do have a major role in proper orientation of global assignees and making them adjust with new environment. Moreover, HR personnel need to evaluate the costs associated with expatriate programs. Finally, they may have to deal with situations where employees may rise about differences in compensation between local and global assignees. Requirements of International Business Management in the Context of HR Professional in Working with International Assignees In my opinion, such requirements as workforce planning and staffing, training and health safety, and Crisis Management are the central issues of international business management in the context of HR profession when working with international assignees. The most significant subject for planning of training for international assignees is the importance of understanding the restricted culture and language. The organization of the compensation programs for multiple workforces around the world is a compound and not an easy work that is put into effect with the help of the balance sheet approach.   Health and safety practices vary among countries as per related laws in those countries. However, HR managers should understand and cope with business decisions that are concerned with strategies, health and safety systems, and different practices faced in countries that may have an impact upon workforces and employee relations between international assignees. So, the requirements include learning the laws, systems of working and understanding the cultures of the countries. Global HR activities that involve preparation, scheming, structuring, implementing, organizing, or developing may be unsuccessful if they are used without considering the differences in countries. Successful processes and systems that are used in one country may fail when they are used in the same way in another one. All the aspects of the international business have a human element. The human recourse management was underestimated for a long time, but its functions and roles, nowadays, are accepted to be one of the most important. Nevertheless, ‘the HR professionals must first learn the geography and characteristics of the field’ (Ohmae, 1990). Potential Involvement of International HRM   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   With the increasing human resource problems in the multinational companies due to increased global operations, it has become to necessary to redefine the scope and role of the human resource management.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   International HRM should be involved as a active partner in formulating global strategies. Necessary skills need to be imparted into senior HR professional through proper training. HR professionals should lead developing processes and activities involving emerging strategies (Briscoe & Schuler 2004, p. 398). Companies should facilitate the development of global strategies by finding out the skills necessary for management and employees, and a major role should be played by the HR department in accomplishing it (Briscoe & Schuler 2004, p. 398). Enhanced interaction is essential among line management, HR personnel and workgroups. Moreover, it is better to decentralize the functions of the headquarters IHR departments. Also, main HR departments should assign basic administrative responsibilities to venders with expertise in HR activities, as the main departments will need to deal with many growing global responsibilities (Briscoe & Schuler 2004, p. 398). Expatriate Performance, Training and Interactions Joint ventures and foreign subsidiaries are usually structured and organized much like their mother companies; the only distinction is that they have both expatriate and local managers. That’s why the international business operations are more difficult and have more complex structure than the domestic business operations. â€Å"Regardless of the effectiveness or availability of Performance Management (PM) tools, expatriate PM success depends largely on the manager and expatriate in question: how well they both understand, internalize, and accept PM, and how skillful they are in its implementation. To this end, appropriate PM training should be available for all expatriates, including their superiors.† (Johnson 2003). The high level of the performance management of the expatriate leads to improvements in their careers and company’s development.   The performance management system that is used in the global business includes a lot of areas of international human recourse management responsibility, such as evaluating foreign managers and international assignees for pay increases. However, one of the most important obstacles to the successful administration and progress of these managers and international assignees is the regular require of recognition of the value of their overseas experience and expatriation, in general, and the casualness with which companies often evaluate these international assignees foreign performance. Certainly, big enterprises that have a lot of overseas assignees and many foreign subsidiaries say that ‘most (83%) do not use performance management to measure international assignees’ success. And many (35%) don’t use any type of measurement at all.’ (Andersen 1999, p. 18) One of the most important factors that influences upon the international assignees’ performance is the performance appraisal system of the company. However the correct and effective system of the performance appraisals is not an easy task even in the native country. The knowledge and the skills that have to be developed by the international assignees differ a lot from the abilities of the workers of the company that is located in the native country should have.   The international assignee and other foreign managers have to increase and make use of the knowledge that is necessary for any managerial assignment without any doubt. The requirement for more number of highly qualified human resource personnel has resulted in the need to use larger numbers of foreign nationals. ‘Most multinational firms favor hiring local nationals for foreign subsidiaries, home-country nationals at headquarters, and, where a regional organization exists, a mix of foreign and home-country managers for regional positions.’ (Johnson 2003) Thanks to such method of international HR management the ethnic groups unite usually varies with the environment of a firm’s business and with the product strategy. So, the role of the staff that works at the native country diminishes in the case of lowering the importance of the area expertise. The principal subject for a large amount of companies in the management of their international assignment system is the arrangement of the competing interests of the firm, international HR management, and the international assignees and family. The business that is concerned about its globalization requires fast deed in order to produce innovative revenues, and to direct the expenses and threats involved with doing that. International human resource department requires adequate lead time to discover and choose successful international assignees. As Ohmae (1990) writes ‘they need a low enough case load of international assignees to be able to provide good service; they want to be able to apply an effective process for selecting and developing quality of international assignees candidates; and they desire to be able to apply a consistent policy of treatment of international assignees.’ International assignees themselves, and their families, need sufficient compensation for the individual and profession sacrifice they make while they relocate; they would like their family concerns to be given essential priority; and they look ahead to   be able to come back to a profession promotion that   takes benefit of their foreign practice. So, the way to success in the global operations is to satisfy the needs of companies and the needs of international assignees. The role of international assignees is very significant; because whether the business strategy will be clear and understandable all over the world depend on their working performance. In order to improve the results of the work there are a large amount of programs that consist of relevance, acceptability, sensitivity and practicality. The factor of relevance means that the HR manager and the worker should realize the relevance of their labor in the general activity and to evaluate the situation correctly. Acceptability is the right evaluation of the job from the side of the HR manager and the diligent execution of the duties by the expatriate. It needs to be seen as fair, reasonable, and accurate. Sensitivity is the attitude of the administration that includes taking into consideration cultural differences and adequacy in evaluating the business reality. The fact that the programs should be practical for the expatriates is also important. They should correspond to the business strategy and be not difficult to execute but not to simple. In this case there is a threat that such program will be done partially. These entire characteristics have to be implemented by the HR managers and need special attention. Compensation for International Assignees   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   International HR department has to create compensation packages that appropriate for employees and profitable to the companies. The components of a balance sheet approach that are helpful in determining expatriate compensation are described below. Home-country salaries International standard Regional standard Better of home or host policy Expatriate Failures The three main reasons for expatriate failure are inappropriate selection, inadequate preparation and the stress associated with expatriation (Enderwick & Dunning 1994). Proper training of expatriates before giving international assignments is necessary to overcome failure. All in all, performance of international assignees depends greatly on proper selection and training. Moreover, appropriate compensation packages are necessary. Women as International Assignees   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Coming to the gender differences in international assignees, there are important aspects to consider. It has been observed that though the number of women employees is increasing over the years, they are not making a substantiate percentage in international assignments. To be precise, in spite of having 47% women workforce in the United States by 1998, only 13% to 14% were selected for international assignments (Varma et al. 2004). Also, in spite of having 30% female students in MBA programs in the US, only 14% are being selected by corporate America for international postings (Koretz, 1999).   Furthermore, the estimated number of female expatriates is between 2 and 5 percent only (Harris, 1993).There are multiple reasons for this scenario.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The important cause is the reluctance of management to send women employees abroad stating that they face more prejudice than men at the new workplace. Also, supervisor-subordinate relationship seems to be an important factor. It was found that female employees showed higher agreement with female supervisors than males (Varma et al. 2004). It becomes crucial, as most of cases require women to interact with male supervisors.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Other related reasons can be explained such as over estimation of women’s problems at workplace by males, and lower availability of corporate development programs such as fast track programs, individual career counseling and career planning workshops for women. Further reasons include the traditional confinement of women to only certain job categories, socio-cultural issues of host countries and the problems of dual career couples. Conclusion In conclusion it is necessary to say that global HRM is more democratic than it was earlier. It provides employees with lots of opportunities and possibilities without paying attention to such factors as cultural characteristics or racial prejudices. Global HRM tries to present cultural diversity at all level of organizations. HRM model in public sector is characterized by lifetime employment, social cohesiveness and seniority wages. The vitality of organization is less important in the country that family ties and friendship. It is seen that GCC countries are not greatly influenced by globalization processes. Managers try to promote their relatives instead of teaching staff how to work. HRM model in the private sector is only on the evolution stage. It is still trying to find innovative ways how to manage the staff effectively. It is recommended for strategic human resource management of future to be characterized by cultural diversity and equal job opportunities for all people. HRM should use the concepts of globalization and labor division in order to achieve highest results. HRM should provide qualified employees with proper positions. Human resource managers should also have highest qualification and professionalism to achieve company’s goals and objectives. One more recommendation is to create more job places and to provide people with them. The cultural dimensions of power distance index, individualism, masculinity, uncertainly avoidance index and long-term orientation are necessary to be studied by the HR managers. The improvements of the programs that are aimed at the expatriate’s learning should include relevance, acceptability, sensitivity and practicality. As the result the production will increase as well as the organization’s revenue and profits. All in all, HR management has a great responsibility in company’s success pertaining to international assignments. They need to identify required personnel with adequate skills and experience to carry out international assignments. HR managers should plan proper reward packages to retain efficient employees on international assignments. Moreover, they need to adjust existing and adopt new policies in order to gain compliance with respective country’s policies and standards. Also, they are supposed to plan and implement relevant training for employees to perform effectively as international assignees. References 1998, ‘ROI on International Assignees’, HR Focus, Vol. 75, no. 3, p. S5. Briscoe, D. R. & Schuler, R. 2004, International Human Resource Management, Second Edition, Routledge, London and New York. Budhwar, Pawan. Human Resource Management in Developing Countries. London:   Routledge. Chiavenato, Idalberto. 2001. â€Å"Advances and Challenges in Human Resource Management in the New Millennium†. Public Personnel Management,30, pp. 17-25. Dunning, Joseph. 1999. Governments, Globalization and International Business. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Eaton, Jack 2000. â€Å"Transnational Companies, Globalization and Industrial†, Comparative Employment Relations, Cambridge, Polity Press. Enderwick, P. & Dunning, J. H. 1994, Transnational Corporations and Human Resources, vol. 16, Routledge, New York. Frazee, V. 1998, ‘An HR Pro Forges a Well-rounded perspective’, Workforce, Vol. 77, no. 2, p. 52. Frazee, V. 1998, ‘No Common Thread in Expat Selection’, Workforce, 4, 4, p. 9. Frazee, V. 1998, ‘Selecting Global Assignees’, Workforce, 3, no. 4, pp. 28-30. Harris, H. 1993, ‘Women in international management: Opportunity or threat?’,Women in Management Review,8, no. 5, pp. 9-14. Hofstede, Geert.1998. International and Cross-Cultural Management Research. Sage: Jean Claude Usunier. Iii, Edward E. Lawler. 2003. Creating a Strategic Human Resources Organization: An Assessment of Trends and New Directions. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Johnson, David. 2003. International Business: Themes and Issues in the Modern Global Economy. London: Routledge. Kim, Pan Suk. 1999. â€Å"Globalization of Human Resource Management: A Cross-Cultural Perspective for the Public Sector†. Public Personnel Management, vol. 28, pp. 27-37 Koretz, G. 1999, ‘A Woman’s Place Is..  :Men Frown on Female Execs Abroad’, Business Week, 3646, no. 28, p. 28. Less Available to Female than to Male Expatriates?’, Journal of Business Ethics, 43, no.  ½, pp. 125-136. Mullaney, E. 2007, ‘Global Mobility in a Brave New World’, International Assignment Perspectives, PricewaterhouseCoopers, pp. 1-54. Ohmae, K. 1990. The Borderless World. New York: HarperCollins. Rowden, Robert W. 1999. â€Å"Potential Roles of the Human Resource Management Professional in the Strategic Planning Process†. SAM Advanced Management Journal, vol. 64, pp. 22-28. Selmer, J. and Leung, A. S. M. 2003, ‘Are Corporate Career Development Activities Sims, Ronald R 2002. Organizational Success through Effective Human Resources Management. Westport, CT: Quorum Books. Solomon, C. M. 1997, ‘Destination U.S.A.’, Workforce, pp. 18-22. Sparrow, Paul, Brewster, Chris and Harris, Hilary. 2004 â€Å"Globalization and HRM†, Globalizing Human Resource Management, Oxon, Routledge. Spring, Joel. 1998. Education and the Rise of the Global Economy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Stahl, G. K. & Bjorkman, I. 2006, Handbook of Research in International Human Resource Management, Edward Elgar. Varma, A., Stroh, L. K. & Schmitt, L. B. 2001, ‘Women and International Assignments:   The Impact of Supervisor-subordinate Relationships’, Journal of World Business, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 380-388.

All Viruses and Bacteria are Pathogens essays

All Viruses and Bacteria are Pathogens essays Viruses and Bacteria are Both Pathogenic to Humans This statement is almost true. All viruses are pathogenic but not necessarily to humans, and not all bacteria are pathogenic. All viruses are pathogenic. They may not all be pathogenic to humans, they may infect plants or other organisms. They take control of the host organisms metabolism and force it to multiply the virus. Examples of viruses that infect humans are rabies, mumps, measles, herpes, glandular fever and the infamous AIDS. They can be dispersed in many ways such as; sewage, food, contact, vectors, bodily fluids and sexual activity. We have no cure for viruses. They are very difficult to control, as they are so small and hide inside the cells of the host organism. They also mutate regularly thus stunting our efforts to find a cure. Our only chance against these obligate parasites is our bodys immune response. Viruses produce antigens which lymphocytes recognize. The lymphocytes create antibodies, which lock onto the antigens, allowing a phagocyte to engulf and digest the virus. Once the virus is severely threatened it retreats into the cells of the spinal chord. The antibodies remain within the organism, ready to strike when the virus begins its next attack. We can therefore introduce a small amount of the virus into people, thus creating antibodies and therefore immunizing them. We can immunize people against Influenza but due to the fact that it mutates regularly and new strains are constantly forming we cannot guaranty success and boosters should be kept up to date. We have not yet managed to immunize people against and HIV. The virus disguises itself and so the immune system doesnt recognize the virus until it is too late. Not all bacteria a pathogenic to humans. Some examples of pathogenic bacteria are tuberculosis, cholera and diphtheria. An example of good bacteria is E. Coli. These are the bacteria that produce vitamin K a ...

MLA 7 is finally here! Our new release.

MLA 7 is finally here! Our new release. MLA 7 is finally here! Our new release. – Blog We’re proud to announce that we’ve finally updated with the MLA 7th edition guidelines. It’s taken us a greater part of 6 months and we’ve added a lot of new stuff in the process. So what exactly did we update? Here’s what’s new: MLA 7 guidelines   – you may notice   lots of changes to your citations for MLA. First, titles are no longer underlined and instead are italicized. Secondly, citations now display the medium in which they originated (e.g. Print, Web).   If you omit certain pieces of information, like publisher or pages, an abbreviation will be inserted in their place (n.p., n. pag.). Although the new MLA guidelines no longer require URLs in your citations, we have not removed them from your website citations, as we understand their importance to a lot of our users. There lots of other changes, but they are too long to list here. Which leads me to our next big change†¦ Revamped Citation Guide page – you can now review specific guidelines and citing situations for each source type for each formatting style. And we give you lots of example citations to guide you. Additionally, we’ve included Turabian formatting guidelines into the Citation Guide for the first time!   This new design is much more user friendly and conducive to learning in the classroom. New form fields and citing possibilities – we’ve added a bunch of new fields to each source type to expand our citing capabilities†¦ Book – you can select whether you are citing an entire book or just a chapter, and you can now enter a specific edition of the book. Magazine – you can now cite magazines that you found from a database. Newspaper – you can enter the location of the newspaper (city/state/country), indicate if the newspaper is nationally well-known, and cite newspaper that you found from a database. Website – you can now enter a sponsor/publisher and a version number. Film – you can select whether you are citing an entire film or just a chapter/commentary, and you can now indicate whether the film is a re-release. Interview – you can now cite interviews from books, magazines, and magazines. Lecture – you can choose what type of lecture you are citing. Radio/TV – you can choose whether you are citing an episode, a series, or an individual broadcast, as well as if you are citing a transcript of the program. Encyclopedia – you can now choose whether you are citing an encyclopedia or a dictionary, as well as if you are citing a specific article or the entire reference book. You can also indicate whether the encyclopedia is well-known and if entries are alphabetically arranged. Photograph – you can now choose a file type for a self-taken digital photograph, and you can also cite photographs from books, magazines, and newspapers. Print-friendly pages – we have gotten a lot of requests to make our pages printable and in response, we’ve formatted our pages, particularly our Bibliography Maker and Citation Guide pages, to be print out well for users. Internet Explorer compatibility – we identified some visual bugs that we’re occurring in Internet Explorer and we’ve fixed a lot of those. Various bug fixes – many bugs that you emailed us about have been fixed. Website citations can now be edited properly. ISBN book searches now accept hyphens and still return the proper search results. New help topics – we’ve gotten a lot of emails and questions about certain topics and in response, we’ve added new questions to our Help FAQs page.

Saydet Al Najat Church Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Saydet Al Najat Church - Assignment Example In the article writer again shows an element of joyfulness when Ali the sixty-five years old woman accompanies her grandchildren to the celebrations (Mohammed, 2010). The old woman in the article is a patriot to her country as she says she is waiting for the day that all terrorists will face the arm of the law. She says this day will be important to her because it will prove to the whole world that Iraq does not support terrorism. The police force in the article proves to be persistent and determined in their efforts to hunt down the terrorists. In the article, it gets noted that the police made vigorous efforts and intensive intelligence gathering. This shows the police force got determined and dedicated to its work. Their hard work gets shown when they raided the five terrorist dens on the same day (Mohammed, 2010). This also shows that the police had a purpose that resulted in action. Their main purpose was to find the perpetrators of Saydet al Najat church, and after their investigation and efforts, they finally found them. The old lady Amina also depicts the purpose of the police when she says that each day a group of the terrorists got arres ted and brought to justice. There is the use of sensory language in the article when the old lady says that she will celebrate without dancing, and she will shed tears out of happiness for the world to see she rejects terrorism. This statement involves the readers’ sense of sight as through this we can see her real picture crying tears of joy. The sensory language also gets used when the writer says hundreds of people were celebrating on the streets, and they were launching fireworks (Mohammed, 2010). Through this statement, the author gets to capture the sense of the sound of the reader. One gets to imagine the noise that was prevailing in the area during the celebrations. The use of sensory language makes the article to become interesting for the reader.  Ã‚  

Cultural Beliefs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cultural Beliefs - Essay Example This paper describes the perceptions in the PEN and how affects the sub-African Saharans behavior regarding their health problems. Cultural Beliefs Culture is a set of rules and beliefs, traditions among other things like art and religion, that is shared by a society. It is where values and behavior is rooted and it is therefore enough to influence perception, judgment, and of course, behavior. AIDS is one of the prevalent diseases in the Sub-Saharan Africa with the rate of 6.1%. It is in fact, one of the worst diseases in the continent, affecting 22.5 million people (HIV positive). AIDS is caused sexually, and sexual practices are behavioral. Since behavior is cultural, it is therefore logical to conclude that one can actually control certain behaviors through culture. In this case, the PEN-3 model, which was created to address and integrate culture in the development, implementation and evaluation of health programs. The PEN-3 model is composed of three domains. These three domains are also composed of another 3 sections each. The three domains are: cultural identity, relationships and expectations and culture and empowerment. Culture and empowerment is a domain that is composed of three more factors which are positive, existential and negative perceptions. They represent all the good and bad facets of culture, hence the positive and negative perceptions.

Prostate Among African American Men Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Prostate Among African American Men - Essay Example The genetic coding of the cells responsible for control of multiplication is interfered with, making the cells to lose control off their multiplication activities (Thompson, 2002). In the case of prostate cancer, the cells that multiply uncontrollably are those found in the prostate gland. The danger of the cancer is that the cells might migrate to other organs of the body. This is called "metastasis" (Robbins, 2007). When they get to these other organs, they make the cells here to also multiply. This makes the organ to become cancerous also. This form of cancer has some effects on the patient. It might lead to pain and difficulty when passing urine and erectile dysfunction (Rosenberg, 2008). This paper is going to look at the issue of prostate cancer among African American men. This is because it has been noted that there are disparities between the occurrence and effects of prostate cancer between African American men and Caucasian, American men. There is a variation in reported incidences of prostate cancer around the world. Countries from the Asian continent, for example china and Japan, report fewer cases than the European or American continent (American Prostate Cancer Association [APCA], 2009). America records one of the highest rates of prostate cancer around the world. ... Another important aspect is that it rarely has symptoms (Washburn et al, 2004). It might manifest itself in form of other complications like that of erectile dysfunction, but no direct symptoms. This, coupled with the fact that majority of those inflicted are above sixty years, makes it hard to diagnose. In fact, the patient might die from other diseases (Arterburn, 2006). African American men record the highest incidences of prostate cancer around the globe (National Cancer Institute [NCI], 2008). They make up about a quarter of all prostate cancer cases (NCI, 2008). They are also more likely to die from it than other men. In fact, they are three times more likely to die from it than their white counterparts (NMA, 2008). Prevalence of Prostate Cancer amongst African American Men This cancer is very significant to the African American man. As far as non-skin cancerous conditions are concerned, it tops the list in terms of occurrence amongst this segment (Washburn et al, 2004). It the most diagnosed cancer among these men. The American Prostate Cancer Association estimates that approximately 40,000 cases will be reported this year alone (2009). This is among the African American men. It is fact that the mortality rate from prostate cancer is dropping (APCA, 2009). But still, it occupies the second position as far as cancer mortalities amongst African American men is concerned (APCA, 2009). In 2005, more than five thousand black men in America succumbed to this cancer (Robbins, 2007). This dropped to about four thousand in 2007 (Robbins, 2007). The mortality rate has been in decline though. For instance, between the years 2000 and 2003, approximately sixty men out of 100,000 died.

An Overview Of Life Satisfaction Literatures Social Work Essay

An Overview Of Life Satisfaction Literatures Social Work Essay This chapter begins with literatures about life satisfaction and important personal and situational predictors of life satisfaction in older persons, then in order to provide a theoretical background for this study attempt to define the most important components of structural and functional support. The next portion will focus on the ways in which significant personal and situational characteristics might affect on structural and functional components. The focus will then shift to the effect of structural and functional components specifically on life satisfaction. And finally specific theories and models that have been proposed to explain the role of structural and functional components in the life satisfaction of older adults will be addressed. Over the past few years, the worlds population has continued on its remarkable transition from a state of high birth and death rates to one characterized by low birth and death rates. At the heart of this transition has been the growth in the number and proportion of older persons. Such a rapid, large, and ubiquitous growth has never been seen in the history of civilization (Norman Henderson, 2003). when the older population will be nearly 2 billion, surpassing the population of children for the first time in human history (United Nations, 2006). For the first time in history, Asian populations and their governments are faced with increasing numbers of older adults, and this raise various social and economic issues, (Chan, 2005) specially issues concerning the life satisfaction (Wu Rudkin, 2000). 2.1 Life Satisfaction The use of different terms such as â€Å"psychological well-being†, â€Å"subjective well-being†, â€Å"life satisfaction†, â€Å"happiness† and â€Å"morale† for the same underlying construct has led to considerable confusion in the literature over exactly what is being measured, however, these concepts and their definitions are not identical, â€Å"all of them involve a psychological response by the individual to socio-environmental situation encountered in life and demonstrate no significant difference in meaning.†(Cloutterbuck, 1987). Stock, Okun, and Benin (1988) defined subjective well-being as combining concepts together; mood, happiness, life satisfaction, and morale. Factors such as morale, life satisfaction and happiness are considered to be important in determining subjective well-being in the elderly (Kim, Hisata, Kai, Lee, 2000). Subjective well-being is composed of two elements: cognitive and affective. Life satisfaction, the cognitive component of subjective well-being, refers to a global judgment of a life as a whole (Jin, 2001).Life satisfaction has also been defined in various ways, including happiness, adjustment, morale, physical health, subjective well-being, and the balance between aspirations and achievements (Nutt, 2001). Life satisfaction has been defined two major ways in the literature: first as an objective entity, usually the quantity of social interactions; and second as an internal and subjective perception, the individuals evaluation of their lives, the second approach is now more widely used (Miller, 1997). Life satisfaction is a very personal assessment, one must decide ones own life satisfaction criteria. Two individuals may share very similar lives, and one may find life satisfactory and the other may not (Quadhamer, 1999). Havighurst proposed that measuring life satisfaction as an â€Å"inner† assessment was a better measure of successful aging. Such a measure would accommodate individual differences in conceptions and values of growing older. Specifically, the individual whose personality most values an active life style could be as satisfied with his life as one who is more passive (Havighurst, 1961). Distinction between life satisfaction and quality of life is not clear and the concepts are sometimes used interchangeably (Borg, Hallberg, Blomqvist, 2006). Jeffres and Dobos (1995) proposed that quality of life consists of two distinct global concepts with underlying domains. The first concept, perceived quality of life or life satisfaction, is a consequence of satisfaction with the personal domains of life. These domains include satisfaction with family life, friends, health, partner and oneself. The second concept refers to quality of life in the broader social environment, environmental quality of life (Jeffres Dobos, 1995). Environmental quality of life domains include satisfaction with housing, schools, health services, safety and security, roads and transport (Evans, 1994) . Personal quality of life is associated with quality of life in the broader social environment (Jeffres Dobos, 1995), but the two domains are not identical (Fadda JiroÃ'‘n, 1999). For example, some i ndividuals rate their quality of life as very good whilst living under extremely difficult environmental conditions, whereas others rate their quality of life as poor even though their environmental conditions are excellent (Westaway, 2006). 2.1.1 Life Satisfaction in elderly Among elders the predictors of life satisfaction were found to be perceived   level of activity (Osberg McGinnis, 1987), age, gender (Fadda JiroÃ'‘n, 1999; Kudo, Izumo, Kodama, Watanabe, Hatakeyama, Fukuoka, Kudo, Yaegashi, Sasaki, 2007), satisfaction with family life (Medley, 1976), the availability of confidants (Strain Chappell, 1982), subjective health rating (Downe-Wamboldt Tamlyn, 1986; Gfellner, 1989; Spreitzer Snyder, 1974) ,   physical health status (Joia, Ruiz, Donalisio, 2007; Kudo et al., 2007; Bowling, 1990) , satisfaction with financial status and socio-economic status (Antonucci Akiyama, 2007; Borg et al., 2006; Spreitzer Snyder, 1974; Welsch, 2007), religious affiliation and private prayer (Korff, 2006; Markides, Levin, Ray, 1987; Sagaza, 2004), marital status, and educational level (Subasi Hayran, 2005), living environment (Subasi Hayran, 2005; Rehdanz Maddison, 2008), personal factors (Borg, FagerstrÃ'†m, Balducci, Burholt, Ferring, Weber, Wenge r, GÃ'†ran Holst, Hallberg, 2008; Sanchez, Jr., 2006) , social support (Abu Bader, Rogers, Barusch, 2003) and   sociopolitical capital (Abdallah, Thompson, Marks, 2008). Based on the International Study   in 1994 and 1999, indicates that the level of satisfaction of the elderly is generally lower in large cities, and lower for those who are in the first half of their 60s, who constitute single-person households, who are not in good health condition, who live in rented housing (Sagaza, 2004) another study showed that good health, high self-esteem, and the absence of worry were associated with life satisfaction (Borg et al., 2008). Analyses of associations with life satisfaction in the study of elderly persons in Hong Kong showed significant associations between life satisfaction and a number of variables including age, education, marital status, self-rated financial situation, religious belief, living arrangement, social support, social network, self-rated health status, functional capacity, number of chronic illnesses and activity level. Multivariate analysis confirmed that the strongest predictors of life satisfaction were self-rated financial situation, activity level and social support (Chou Chi, 1999). Borg et al., (2006) identified several factors of importance for life satisfaction among older people with reduced ability to perform daily activities: social contacts, health, activities, family, negatively losing family members (Borg et al., 2006). Recent work has identified a relationship between personality traits and life satisfaction (Thakral, 2006; Fogle, Huebner, Laughlin, 2002). Among people with reduced ADL capacity in 6 European countries, it was found that personal factors, rather than environmental factors such as social or financial resources, influence life satisfaction (Borg et al., 2008). Life satisfaction and Gender Up to age 65, women tended to report higher rates of life satisfaction than men; however, after age 65 men were more likely than women to report a high degree of life satisfaction (Spreitzer Snyder, 1974).   Significant predictors of life satisfaction were found in female respondents: age, financial strain and depression. In male respondents, the significant predictors of life satisfaction were education and financial strain (Chou Chi, 1999). Medley found standard of living to be a more important predictor of life satisfaction in women, whereas satisfaction with health was more important to men (Medley, 1976). Life satisfaction and Age As age increases there is a slow decrease in life satisfaction (Melendez, Tomas, Oliver, Navarro, 2005) Indeed, survey researchers have noted that older people show consistent increases in life satisfaction with age but a leveling off of more affective characteristics such as happiness (Antonucci Akiyama, 2007). Life satisfaction and Income Previous studies have indicated that financial strain was consistently and negatively associated with life satisfaction and financial situation was a significant predictor of satisfaction (Chou Chi, 1999; Chou Chi, 1999) and satisfaction with financial status was a stronger predictor of life satisfaction than objective financial state (Spreitzer Snyder, 1974). Life satisfaction and Educational level Education is found to have a significant effect on life satisfaction. Higher education attainment is associated with improved socioeconomic status, higher wage rates, and better health, all of which lead to better living standards (Bukenya, Gebremedin, Schaeffeaer, 2003). Life satisfaction and Ethnic Barger, Donoho, Wayment., (2009) evaluated racial/ethnic disparities in life satisfaction, and explored the relative contributions of SES, health status, and social relationships to life satisfaction among two very large, diverse probability samples of U.S. adults. That was the first major evaluation of Hispanic life satisfaction in the U.S. and is the largest U.S. population based life satisfaction study to date. They found that Blacks and Hispanics have lower life satisfaction than Whites, but controlling for SES and health status weakened these differences for Blacks and eliminated them for Hispanics. They also found a modest Hispanic benefit for being very satisfied in multivariable models. The consistently higher explained life satisfaction variance among Whites could represent substantive cultural variation in the types of support relevant to well-being judgments (Barger, Donoho, Wayment, 2009). Life satisfaction and marital status Marital status was found to be positively related to life satisfaction by some investigators (Markides et al., 1987; Strain Chappell, 1982) whereas others failed to show this relationship (Osberg McGinnis, 1987). Marital status significantly affects satisfaction, with being single having a negative effect on both health and quality of life satisfaction. Proponents of social role explanations suggest that men derive greater benefits from marriage than women do because mens roles are less stressful and more gratifying compared to women (Bukenya et al., 2003). Hansen et al., (2004) in a study with title: â€Å"Age, marital status and life satisfaction† found, having a partner (in the household) was strongly associated with higher levels of life satisfaction for both genders. The results showed no differential effect of having a partner by gender. However, for both genders, older cohorts without a partner had higher life satisfaction than their younger counterparts. No age-differential effect of having a partner was found. Interestingly, the effect of having a partner decreased with age for both genders, and significantly more so amongst women (Hansen, 2004). Life satisfaction and Employment Researchers examining employment status and life satisfaction have found a positive relation between these variables. Results of several studies have further suggested that persons 65 years of age and older who remain active in the labor force have higher levels of life satisfaction and morale than do retired persons in the same age cohort (Aquino, Russellc, Cutrona, Altimaier, 1996). Life satisfaction and Strata (rural/urban) Evans., (2005) studied differences in the social supports of rural and urban elders to determine what those differences meant in terms of three markers of successful aging: activity level, life satisfaction, and depressive symptoms. Results showed that urban older adults reported more depressive symptoms as compared to rural older adults. Furthermore, subjective level of social support (perceived satisfaction with support) was positively correlated with life satisfaction and negatively correlated with depressive symptoms for both rural and urban older adults, however, there were no mediating effects of social support in the relationship between residence and levels of activity, life satisfaction, and depressive symptoms (Evans, 2005). 2.2 Functional and Structural components of support In this section a broad overview of structural and functional components of support will be provide and each of these concept consider separately, because each has different properties that can potentially influence the life satisfaction. 2.2.1 Definitions: The concept of social support has been a popular subject of research since the late 1970 and publications on social support increased almost geometrically from 1976 to 1981 (Phillips, Siu, Yeh, Cheng, 2008).The concept of social support has been variously addressed in terms of social bonds, social contacts, and availability of confidants (Johnson, 1996; Seeman, Bruce, McAvay, 1996) and early research frequently unclear the distinctions between four concepts: social relations, social network, social support, and social integration (Antonucci Akiyama, 2007). social support and social support resources such as: social network, social interactions or social contacts, reported as related but distinct concepts (Seeman, Lusignolo, Albert, Berkman, 2001). Social support includes interpersonal communication and interaction, love and understanding, caring and concern, affection and companionship, financial assistance, and respect and acceptance (Antonucci Akiyama, 2007; Loue Sajatovic, 2008). Definitions of social support range from the actual supportive acts that are exchanged between individuals to a personality-like factor based in early interpersonal experiences that then influences how an individual views the likelihood that someone is supportive. The concept of social support has been investigated by researchers in anthropology, epidemiology, medicine, nursing, psychology, and sociology. Given the different backgrounds of researchers in these fields one can appreciate why reaching consensus for a definition of social support has been difficult (Rudkin, 2006). There is a lack of general consensus on how social support should be specifically defined. One useful way to conceptualize social support is that it has both structural and functional aspects, qualitative (subjective) and quantitative (objective) aspects, and social network-based and support-based aspects (Phillips et al., 2008). 2.2.2Functional Component of Support More recent studies of social support conceptualize it as the functions that are provided by social relationships. Although the question of what exactly is provided by supportive individuals varies between researchers, many agree that supportive individuals provide or make available what can be termed emotional support, informational support, tangible support, and belonging support .These functional aspects of social support are often highly related to each other and not easily separated in everyday life. Emotional support, provides individuals with the belief that they are loved and cared for, emotional support involved such things   as giving advice, expressing affection, and providing morale support (Johnson, 1996). Emotional support is probably what most of us imagine when we think about a supportive individual. Emotional support is thought to be beneficial because it provides the recipient with a sense of acceptance and may strengthen ones self-esteem during life challenges (Loue Sajatovic, 2008). Informational support can be a very powerful form of support to the extent that it provides useful direction. Such advice and guidance may also carry an emotional message, it is often the case that useful guidance from close friends can be seen as emotionally supportive in that the person cares enough to speak with you about important decisions (Cohen , Underwood , Gottlieb , 2000). Appraisal supportincludes feedback given to individuals to help them in self-evaluation or in apprais ing situations. The intangible forms of support; emotional, informational, and appraisal support, can be difficult to disentangle (Rudkin, 2006). Tangible support, is conceptualized as the assistance from others in one‘s daily functioning. Emotional social support contributed to positive affect, while tangible social support contributed to life satisfaction as well as reducing psychosomatic and emotional distress (Seeman et al., 2001). For older people tangible support may be as simple as providing a ride to the grocery store or mowing the lawn (Loue Sajatovic, 2008), involves being able to help with everyday jobs around the house, providing financial assistance, and helping in the process of taking care of children (Johnson, 1996). Research findings regarding instrumental support are more mixed. Receipt of higher levels of instrumental support, specifically help with various tasks, has been associated with greater declines in physical functioning. More moderate levels of instrumental support appear to promote recovery and slow decline in functioning. In many studies, however, the direction of causation has not been cle arly established (Rudkin, 2006). Belonging support is defined as the presence of others with whom to engage in social activities. An example of it would be a friend with whom to go shopping or to watch a basketball game. Belonging support may be beneficial because such positive social and leisure activities may enhance ones mood and sense of acceptance by others (Cohen   et al., 2000). Social support functions are often intertwined those who provide tangible support may also be providing reassurance and emotional support. Furthermore, different network members provide different types of support. People tend to turn to their families for instrumental support, friends for emotional support, and during times of illness, health care workers for advice and aid (Loue Sajatovic, 2008). Higher levels of emotional support, both perceived and received, improve outcomes, whereas the effects of instrumental support have been questionable. Older individuals who have more interaction with others and who report more available emotional support, experience fewer and slower declines in cognitive and physical functioning (Rudkin, 2006). The effectiveness of any form of support will depend on the extent to which it meets the demands of the particular stressful event. For controllable stressful events, support such as informational or tangible is predicted to be more important. However, if the event is less controllable, then emotional or belonging support may serve to facilitate adjustment (Uchino, Cacioppo, Kiecolt-Glaser, 1996). 2.2.2.1 Functional component: perceived or received Function components of support are usually organized along two dimensions: what support is perceived to be available (available support) and what support is actually received or provided (received support) by others (Cohen, 2004; Kafetsios   Sideridis, 2006). These measures are not highly related and are often associated with different effects on well-being. What is perceived as available may or may not correspond to what is actually provided (Kahna, Hesslingb, Russellc, 2003). Studies suggest that received support is not related to the perceived availability of support in a straightforward manner, one reason is that measures of available support are related to ones cognitive representation of social support, a person might perceive a high availability of support but decide not to utilize it because of concerns about network members perception of their competence (Cohen   et al., 2000). when elderly individuals indicated that others were available to provide social support, the y were more likely to report greater use of proactive coping (Greengalss, Fliksenbaum, Eaton, 2006). However, the benefits of social support are most strongly related to the perception that support is available. In other words, the highest levels of well-being are found among people who believe that they have a high level of social support, regardless of how much support they receive or how many people they know (Karademas, 2006; Kim et al., 2000; Phillips et al., 2008).National study of economically stressed older adults shows that those who believed that no one would come to their aid in the future had the greatest number of depressive symptoms (Loue Sajatovic, 2008) and a higher level of support was reported in those who perceived the provider as supportive (Pierce et al., 1992). 2.2.2.2 Buffer against stressful life events Social support may act as a buffer against stressful life events and, thus, reduce exposure to the resultant cumulative pathological effects of stress. Alternatively, social support may be a constant, more generally available resource, across time and situations (Alan, Alison, Martha, Lawrence, Ian, 2007; Antonucci Akiyama, 2007).The two type of support are not mutually exclusive and may be viewed as complementary, there is evidence to support both types of effects. It should also be emphasized that the particular pathways or mechanisms by which social relationships affect well being likely depend upon the characteristics of the individual, his or her socioeconomic situation, the health outcome of interest, and the measure of social relationships (Rudkin, 2006). Murrell and Norris (1984) postulated that social support may not only buffer individuals from stressful life events, but may actually be important for the general maintenance of psychological well-being and life satisfaction in old age, independent of adversity or stress (Tho , 2001). Social support can act as a buffer to soften the effects of negative life occurrences, this might explain why some people maintain good health when exposed to stressful life events which would be expected to have a negative effect on health (Bowung , Farquha , Browne , 1991) and those older adults who are going through the loss of a loved one and have a strong social support system report a higher sense of life satisfaction and well-being (Gray , 2007). Coleman suggests that social relationships can act as a form of social insurance, provide communication and information networks, and create norms and sanctions that facilitate social action (Celia Lenore, 2004). 2.2.3 Structural Component of Support Support Network refers to objective characteristics of the network such as total network size (Janevic, Ajrouch, Merline, Akiyama, Antonucci, 2000; Antonucci, Lansford, Akiyama, Smith, Baltes, Takahashi, Fuhrer, Dartigues, 2002), the number of family members, age, sex, proximity, or frequency of contact with network members and living arrangements (Yoshida, Sauer, Tidwell, Skager, Sorenson, 1997). Social networks define as webs of relationships that link the individual directly and indirectly to other people. Social networks include friends and family, as well as familiarity. The size of a social network depends on the person , some people have large families and numerous friends, whereas others may have smaller families and smaller friendship networks (Phillips, 1986; Phillips et al., 2008; Quadhamer, 1999). The Properties of the person and situation significantly influence the structure of the individuals network. Since one occupies a large number of roles, such as child, spouse, and parent, it is natural that this is a time when there are numerous members of the support network, and that they differ widely in age and gender (Antonucci, Akiyama, Merline, 2001; Berke, 1991; Fiori, 2006). 2.2.3.1 Formal social support Formal social support is in many cases essential to an older adults well-being because it provides practical support that becomes increasingly dependent as a person ages. Formal support comes from those individuals and institutions one depends upon for services and assistance such as health care providers, social workers, case managers, shopkeepers, delivery persons, and others in institutional settings (Loue Sajatovic, 2008; Quadhamer, 1999). 2.2.3.2Informal social support There are several aspects of the structure of social networks that have received much attention in the literature on social relations and aging. Including family versus friend relationships, under the umbrella term of structural component is somewhat arbitrary, as this issue also touches on functional component. 2.2.3.3 Family versus Friends Informal Social Support systems are typically those supports such as family and friends and developed over a period of time through interactions with others (Nutt, 2001; Quadhamer, 1999). Informal support members are generally the primary caregivers to the older adult who needs assistance. Psychologically, social interactions with family and friends provide feedback to the individual regarding his/her social role and behavior (Rosenhand, 1999) and both of family and friends social support increase life satisfaction (Miller, 1997). The study of social relations must take into account that convoys of close friends and family members may be both pleasant and unpleasant, supportive and unsupportive (Antonucci Akiyama, 2007). Findings showed that, reliable alliance, or instrumental assistance, was more strongly related to well-being when provided by kin than by nonkin (Felton Berry, 1992). Surveys of elderly people have documented that the most frequently mentioned helpers are wives followed by daughters, particularly in the case of widowed parents (Bowung   et al., 1991). Couples who do not have children may intentionally develop strong relationships with relatives such as nephews and nieces because these relatives serve as informal support to them when children would otherwise assume support (Loue Sajatovic, 2008).   Social support, especially from children and family members, had a significant positive effect on the life satisfaction of older adults when support was provided at a low level. However, excessive support was found to diminish the sense of well-being in the elderly as well as wear away their autonomy and independence (Silverstein Bengtson, 1994). In fact, increasing contact with family members could be viewed by older adults as a sign of lost independence (Fiori, 2006). Older people who are married are much less likely to need formal supports, such as home nurse care or Meals on Wheels, than unmarried people. Family relationships, under normal circumstances, make an important contribution to well-being (Antonucci Akiyama, 2007) however, if the relationship is not supportive and positive, the opposite is true. In fact, intimate relationships that are not supportive, trusting, and loving have negative influences on the physical and mental health and overall well-being of the elderly. Additionally, the very old tend to have smaller circles of social support as many people have outlived spouses, other family members, friends, and sometimes even children (Loue Sajatovic, 2008). Although it is clear that families play important roles in the lives of older adults, providing sometimes extraordinary care giving efforts and instrumental help, friends are also invaluable resources. Indeed, research initially designed to examine the impact of family members alone often finds that the friends are mentioned as a significant support source (Antonucci Akiyama, 2007).The need for friendships among the elderly is self-evident (Hanafy, 1992).When confronting loneliness or needing assistance with social issues, older adults prefer friendships to family Social Support ( specifically spouses and children). The reasons that older adults prefer friendships to family in cases of emotional support are primarily due to sense of continuity with the past that friends can provide (Loue Sajatovic, 2008). Older people obtained a sense of emotional support from having intimate friendships with neighbors and friends and at least one child living close by with whom they have frequent contact (Loue Sajatovic, 2008).Friendships have significant positive effects on the mental health of the elderly (Antonucci Akiyama, 2007) and tend to be a matter of choice rather than birth. People choose friends because of shared interests and desire for contact and friendships share a form of reciprocity that may be absent in family relationships and reciprocity has a strong effect on the satisfaction level of seniors and their friendships (Loue Sajatovic, 2008). In one study of friendships among people over 60 year, 68% reported long-term friendship ties throughout their lives. There were some gender differences, with more than half the women reporting that they remained friends with a close friend from childhood or adolescence, whereas men showed high levels of continuity with close friendships developed at midlife. In one sample of people over 85 years old, it was found that more than half still had at least one close friend, and three-fourths were in weekly contact with people they considered their friends. Furthermore, almost half reported that they had made new friends after age 85, although the criteria for those friends tended to involve less expectation for intimacy or shared history than was common among younger people (Antonucci Akiyama, 2007). 2.3 Functional and Structural Support in elderly The findings from several studies suggest that the social network of elderly adultsmay differ from those of younger persons on a number of dimensions. In modem societies the networks of the aged are generally smaller than those of younger people. There is some controversy in the literature as to whether social networks of the aging decrease in size, frequency of contact with persons in the network, and degree of given and received support (Dorman, 2001). Gender It has been widely recognized that social networks among men and women differ in complex ways, particularly in relation to life stage (Antonucci et al., 2001). In terms of gender, women report providing more support, having more frequent contact with network members, being more satisfied with their friends, and having larger and more multifaceted social networks than do men (Fiori, Antonucci, Cortina, 2006). Male got more support from fa