Play format to influence the audiences feelings Essay

Examine how Arthur miller uses the play format to influence the audiences feelings towards Eddie The play ‘A view from the bridge’ was written in 1955 by Arthur Miller; a man who’s play was heavily influenced by the work and lives in the communities of dockworkers and longshoremen. This play examines individuals, characters like Eddie, and their responsibilities and position in society. In addition, Miller also reveals to the audience a meaningful understanding way of how Eddie thinks, acts and behaves to his surroundings. While doing this, he also portrays a different perspective of what family and Italian culture is like, based on his own past experiences with Italian immigrants. It is this, which dramatizes the themes of conflict, betrayal, love and obsession. The American immigration system at the time was at its peak and due to the ‘American dream’ many were illegal. Arthur Miller’s play was influenced by this immigration system in America as he had heard stories and personal experiences involving illegal immigrants. At first he didn’t act upon this idea, but after visiting Italy it inspired him to write a play influenced by the social, historical and cultural background of these Italian communities. At the beginning of the play Alfieri sets the scene by showing his perspective through a monologue. The language he uses is direct, formal and expressive of what the characters mean. By the end of Alfieri’s first speech Miller uses the dialogue to influence the audience into thinking their interpretation of Eddie Carbonne to be one of the main characters and to be identified as the hero of this particular tradgedy. The opening of the play also highlights Eddie to be seen as a decent and respected member of the community as he and his wife Beatrice were responsible for bringing up Catherine, Beatrice’s niece, when her parents died. This established Eddie as a father figure, which could explain why Rodolpho and Marco came to stay with him when they first arrived in America. The respect earned from this conveyed in many ways, such as Catherine fetching and lighting a cigar for him, and a more important way in terms of status, twice interrupting his wife in mid speech, and putting words into her mouth if anyone asks her about the immigrants in their house:’ Eddie suppose somebody†¦ ‘ ‘I don’t care what the question is. You-don’t-no-nothin’. He is drilling this idea into her head slowly so she understands the importance of not telling anyone about the Marco and Rodolpho. Miller uses this repeated interruption, which happens towards the opening of the play, to show how early on tension is evident in Eddie and Beatrice’s marriage therefore showing Eddie to be considerate. The first characters Miller presents to the audience are Catherine and Eddie. At first we see Eddie to be quite an overprotective father who sees the naivety of Catherine and tries to explain to her the fact that she’s, â€Å"Getting to be a big girl, you got to keep yourself more, can’t be so friendly†. Eddie still sees her as a â€Å"baby† as does not seem to be able to handle the fact that she is growing up and wants to be noticed by boys. Catherine’s character is presented to the audience as happy and confident, but maybe a bit forward. Eddie sees the craving of attention when she is â€Å"walking wavy† like she is selling her body to the opposite sex. Eddie does not like the fact that the boys â€Å"heads are turning†. This conversation takes place early in the first act into the story and already there has been a change in relationship whereby the audience question Eddie being jealous of the younger boys. Catherine is naive about Eddie’s reactions and thinks nothing of it. There is a lot jealousy developing in their relationship between Eddie and Catherine. Eddie becomes upset at the fact that maybe Rodolpho has won over the affection of Catherine and Eddie has been unsuccessful. Eddie retaliates through jealousy by telling Catherine that Rodolpho is using her for an American passport when they are alone. The stage directions influence the audience, as Catherine is â€Å"smiling but tense†. It is as if you can feel the friction in the air. We sympathize with Catherine as she only wants to grow up and Eddie is holding her back and still treating her like a child. Eddie is doing this because he is scared of the fact that Rodolpho is taking his â€Å"baby† away. However, later on in the play, another side of Eddie is shown. When Eddie had finished the phone call to the immigration bureau and is own his way home he bumps into Louis and Mike, they ask him to come bowling but Eddie at this time turns down the offer, as he is feeling guilty. When Eddie is back into the house Miller presents to the audience the development in Eddie and Beatrice’s relationship. Eddie expects Beatrice to respect him and do as he says â€Å"a wife is supposed to believe a husband. † This dialogue highlights Eddie’s character as being very demanding and uncompromising. The final paragraph uses poetic language and Alfieri says it in an emotional tone. Alfieri shows some admiration in his ending speech for Eddie, â€Å"I will love him more than all my sensible clients. † Alfieri admires Eddie as his heart was in the right place and he didn’t settle for half. This last speech influences the audience into thinking that throughout the play Eddie had always been loyal and decent to his family. Eddie Carbonne is a prime example of a tragic hero, as he was an honest man who nurtured and raised an orphan and gave a home to illegal immigrants. He had a fatal flaw, which, combined with other negative characteristics such as stubbornness and selfishness, led to his downfall. His death was an indirect result of his own actions, and he would have stayed alive had he not incestuously loved his niece, and tried to stop then getting married. Eddie allowed himself to be open with his personality as he portrayed his whole character in the play, from kindness to cowardness.

Lamb: The Gospel According to Biff, Christ’s Childhood Pal Chapter 21

Chapter 21 â€Å"You make a very attractive woman,† Rumi said from the comfort of his pit. â€Å"Did I tell you that my wife has passed on to her next incarnation and that I am alone?† â€Å"Yeah, you mentioned that.† He seemed to have given up on us getting his daughter back. â€Å"What happened to the rest of your family, anyway?† â€Å"They drowned.† â€Å"I'm sorry. In the Ganges?† â€Å"No, at home. It was the monsoon season. Little Vitra and I had gone to the market to buy some swill, and there was a sudden downpour. When we returned†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He shrugged. â€Å"I don't mean to sound insensitive, Rumi, but there is a chance that your loss could have been caused by – oh, I don't know – perhaps the fact that you LIVE IN A FUCKING PIT!† â€Å"That's not helping, Biff,† Joshua said. â€Å"You said you had a plan?† â€Å"Right. Rumi, am I correct in assuming that these pits, when someone is not living in them, are used for tanning hides?† â€Å"Yes, it is work that only Untouchables may do.† â€Å"That would account for the lovely smell. I assume you use urine in the tanning process, right?† â€Å"Yes, urine, mashed brains, and tea are the main ingredients.† â€Å"Show me the pit where the urine is condensed.† â€Å"The Rajneesh family is living there.† â€Å"That's okay, we'll bring them a present. Josh, do you have any lint in the bottom of your satchel?† â€Å"What are you up to?† â€Å"Alchemy,† I said. â€Å"The subtle manipulation of the elements. Watch and learn.† When it was not being used, the urine pit was the home of the Rajneesh family, and they were more than happy to give us loads of the white crystals that covered the floor of their home. There were six in the family, father, mother, an almost grown daughter, and three little ones. Another little son had been taken for sacrifice at the festival of Kali. Like Rumi, and all the other Untouchables, the Rajneesh family looked more like skeletons mummified in brown leather than people. The Untouchable men went about the pits naked or wearing only a loincloth, and even the women were dressed in tatters that barely covered them – nothing as nice as the stylish sari that I had purchased in the marketplace. Mr. Rajneesh commented that I was a very attractive woman and encouraged me to drop by after the next monsoon. Joshua pounded chunks of the crystallized mineral into a fine white powder while Rumi and I collected charcoal from under the heated dying pit (a firebox had been gouged out of the stone under the pit) which the Untouchables used to render the flowers from the indigo shrub into fabric dye. â€Å"I need brimstone, Rumi. Do you know what that is? A yellow stone that burns with a blue flame and gives off a smoke that smells like rotten eggs?† â€Å"Oh yes, they sell it in the market as some sort of medicine.† I handed the Untouchable a silver coin. Go buy as much of it as you can carry.† â€Å"Oh my, this will be more than enough money. May I buy some salt with what is left?† â€Å"Buy what you need with what's left over, just go.† Rumi skulked away and I went to help Joshua process the saltpeter. The concept of abundance was an abstract one to the Untouchables, except as it pertained to two categories, suffering and animal parts. If you wanted decent food, shelter, or clean water, you would be sorely disappointed among the Untouchables, but if you were in the market for beaks, bones, teeth, hides, sinew, hooves, hair, gallstones, fins, feathers, ears, antlers, eyeballs, bladders, lips, nostrils, poop chutes, or any other inedible part of virtually any creature that walked on, swam under, or flew over the subcontinent of India, then the Untouchables were likely to have what you wanted lying around, conveniently stored beneath a thick blanket of black flies. In order to fashion the equipment I needed for my plan, I had to think in terms of animal parts. Fine unless you need, say, a dozen short swords, bows and arrows, and chain mail for thirty soldiers and all you have to work with is a stack of nostrils and three mismatched poop chutes. It was a challenge, but I made do. As Jo shua moved among the Untouchables, surreptitiously healing their maladies, I barked out my orders. â€Å"I need eight sheep bladders – fairly dry – two handfuls of crocodile teeth, two pieces of rawhide as long as my arms and half again as wide. No, I don't care what kind of animal, just not too ripe, if you can manage it. I need hair from an elephant's tail. I need firewood, or dried dung if you must, eight oxtails, a basket of wool, and a bucket of rendered fat.† And a hundred scrawny Untouchables stood there, eyes as big as saucers, just staring at me while Joshua moved among them, healing their wounds, sicknesses, and insanities, without any of them suspecting what was happening. (We'd agreed that this was the wisest tack to take, as we didn't want a bunch of healthy Untouchables athletically bounding through Kalighat proclaiming that they had been cured of all ills by a strange foreigner, thus attracting attention to us and spoiling my plan. On the other hand, neither could we stand there and watch these people suffer, knowing that we – well, Joshua – had the power to help them.) He'd also taken to poking one of them in the arm with his finger anytime anyone said the word â€Å"Untouchable.† Later he told me that he just hated passing up the opportunity for palpable irony. I cringed when I saw Joshua touching the lepers among them, as if after all these years away from Israel a tiny Pharisee stood on my shoulder and sc reamed, â€Å"Unclean!† â€Å"Well?† I said after I'd finished my orders. â€Å"Do you want your children back or not?† â€Å"We don't have a bucket,† said one woman. â€Å"Or a basket,† said another. â€Å"Okay, fill some of the sheep bladders with rendered fat, and bundle the wool in some kind of hide. Now go, we don't have a lot of time.† And they all stood and looked at me. Big eyes. Sores healed. Parasites purged. They just looked at me. â€Å"Look, I know my Sanskrit isn't great, but you do know what I am asking?† A young man stepped forward. â€Å"We do not want to anger Kali by depriving her of her sacrifices.† â€Å"You're kidding, right?† â€Å"Kali is the bringer of destruction, without which there can be no rebirth. She is the remover of the bondage that ties us to the material world. If we anger her, she will deprive us of her divine destruction.† I looked at Joshua across the crowd. â€Å"Do you understand this?† â€Å"Fear?† he said. â€Å"Can you help?† I asked in Aramaic. â€Å"I'm not good at fear,† Joshua said in Hebrew. I thought for a second as two hundred eyes pinned me to the sandstone on which I stood. I remembered the red-stained gashes on the wooden elephant statues at the altar of Kali. Death was their deliverance, was it? â€Å"What is your name?† I asked the man who had stepped out of the crowd. â€Å"Nagesh,† he said. â€Å"Stick out your tongue, Nagesh.† He did, and I threw back the cloth that covered my head and loosened it around my neck. Then I touched his tongue. â€Å"Destruction is a gift you value?† â€Å"Yes,† said Nagesh. â€Å"Then I shall be the instrument of the goddess's gift.† With that I pulled the black glass dagger from the sheath in my sash, held it up before the crowd. While Nagesh stood, passive, wide-eyed, I drove my thumb under his jaw, pushed his head back, and brought the dagger down across his throat. I lowered him to the ground as the red liquid spurted over the sandstone. I stood and faced the crowd again, holding the dripping blade over my head. â€Å"You owe me, you ungrateful fucks! I have brought to your people the gift of Kali, now bring me what I ask for.† They moved really quickly for people who were on the edge of starvation. After the Untouchables scattered to do my bidding, Joshua and I stood over the bloodstained body of Nagesh. â€Å"That was fantastic,† Joshua said. â€Å"Absolutely perfect.† â€Å"Thanks.† â€Å"Had you been practicing all that time we were in the monastery?† â€Å"You didn't see me push the pressure point in his neck then?† â€Å"No, not at all.† â€Å"Gaspar's kung fu training. The rest, of course, was from Joy and Balthasar.† I bent over and opened Nagesh's mouth, then took the ying-yang vial from around my neck and put a drop of the antidote on the Untouchable's tongue. â€Å"So he can hear us now, like when Joy poisoned you?† Joshua asked. I pulled back one of Nagesh's eyelids and watched the pupil contract slowly in the sunlight. â€Å"No, I think he's still unconscious from me holding the pressure point. I didn't think the poison would work quickly enough. I could only get a drop of poison on my finger when I loosened my sari. I knew it would keep him down, I just wasn't sure it would put him down.† â€Å"Well, you are truly a magus, now, Biff. I'm impressed.† â€Å"Joshua, you healed a hundred people today. Half of them were probably dying. I did some sleight of hand.† My friend's enthusiasm was undeterred. â€Å"What's the red stuff, pomegranate juice? I can't figure out where you concealed it.† â€Å"No, actually I was going to ask you about that.† â€Å"What?† I held my arm up and showed Joshua where I had slashed my own wrist (the source of blood for the show). I had been holding it against my leg and as soon as I removed the pressure the blood started spurting again. I sat down hard on the sandstone and my vision began to tunnel down to a pinpoint. â€Å"I was hoping you could help me out with this,† I said before I fainted. â€Å"You need to work on that part of the trick,† Joshua said when I came to. â€Å"I might not always be around to fix your wrist.† He was speaking Hebrew – that meant for my ears only. I saw Joshua kneeling above me, then beyond him the sky was blotted out by curious brown faces. The recently murdered Nagesh was in the front of the crowd. â€Å"Hey, Nagesh, how'd the rebirth go?† I asked in Sanskrit. â€Å"I must have strayed from my dharma in my last life,† Nagesh said. â€Å"I have been reincarnated, once again, as an Untouchable. And I have the same ugly wife.† â€Å"You challenged master Levi who is called Biff,† I said, â€Å"of course you didn't move up. You're lucky you're not a stink bug or something. See, destruction isn't the big favor you all thought it was.† â€Å"We brought the things you asked for.† I hopped to my feet feeling incredibly rested and energized. â€Å"Nice,† I said to Joshua. â€Å"I feel like I just had one of those strong coffees you used to make at Balthasar's.† â€Å"I miss coffee,† said Josh. I looked at Nagesh, â€Å"I don't suppose you†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"We have swill.† â€Å"Never mind,† I said. Then I said one of those things that as a boy growing up in Galilee, you never think you'll hear yourself say: â€Å"Okay, Untouchables, bring me the sheep bladders!† Rumi said that the goddess Kali was served by a host of black-skinned female demons, who sometimes during the feast would bring men to corners of the altar and copulate with them as blood rained down from the goddess's saw-tooth maw above. â€Å"Okay, Josh, you're one of them,† I said. â€Å"What are you gonna be?† â€Å"The goddess Kali, of course. You got to be God last time.† â€Å"What last time?† â€Å"All of the last times.† I turned to my intrepid minions. â€Å"Untouchables, paint him up!† â€Å"They're not going to buy that a burr-headed Jewish kid is their goddess of destruction.† â€Å"O ye of little faith,† I said. Three hours later we were again crouched beneath a tree near the temple of Kali. We were both dressed as women, covered from head to toe by our saris, but I was looking much lumpier under mine due to Kali's extra arms and garland of severed heads, played tonight by painted sheep bladders filled with explosives and suspended around my neck by long strands of elephant tail hair. Any observers who might get close enough to notice my protrusions were quickly deterred by the smell coming off of Joshua and me. We had used the goo from the bottom of Rumi's pit to paint our bodies black. I didn't have the courage to ask what the substance had been in life, but if there was a place where they allowed vultures to ripen in the sun before pounding them into a smooth paste and mixing it with just the right amount of buffalo squat, then Rumi called it home. The Untouchables had also painted huge red rings around Joshua's eyes, fitted him with a ropey wig of oxtails, and affixed to his torso six pe rt little breasts fashioned from pitch. â€Å"Stay away from any open flame. Your tits will go up like volcanos.† â€Å"Why did I have to have six and you only had to have two.† â€Å"Because I am the goddess and have to wear the garland of skulls and the extra arms.† We'd made my arms from rawhide, using my primary arms as models, then drying the molded arms in place over the fire. The women made a harness that held the extra arms in place under my own, then we painted the arms black with the same black goo. They were a little wobbly, but they were light and would look realistic enough in the dark. It was still hours from the height of the ceremony at midnight, when the children would be hacked to death, but we wanted to be there in time to stop the revelers from cutting off the children's fingers if we could. Now, the wooden elephants were empty on their turntables, but the altar of Kali was already filling with gruesome tribute. The heads of a thousand goats had been laid on the altar before the goddess, and the blood ran slick over the stones and in the grooves that channeled it into large brass pots at the corners of the altar. Female acolytes carried the pots up a narrow ladder at the back of the great statue of Kali, then dumped them through some sort of reservoir that fed it through the goddess's jaws. Below, by torchlight, worshipers danced in the sticky shower as the blood flowed down upon them. â€Å"Look, those women are dressed like me,† Joshua said. â€Å"Except they only have two breasts each.† â€Å"Technically, they're not dressed, they're painted. You make a very attractive female demon, Josh. Did I tell you that?† â€Å"This isn't going to work.† â€Å"Of course it's going to work.† I guessed that there were already ten thousand worshipers in the temple square, dancing, chanting, and beating drums. A procession of thirty men came down the main boulevard, each carrying a basket under his arm. As they reached the altar, each man dumped the contents of the basket over the rows of bloody goat heads. â€Å"What are those?† Joshua asked. â€Å"Those are exactly what you think they are.† â€Å"They're not the heads of the children?† â€Å"No, I think those are the heads of strangers who happened down the road we were on before Rumi came along to pull us into the grass.† After the severed heads were dispersed across the altar, the female acolytes came out of the crowd dragging the headless corpse of a man, which they laid on the steps leading to the altar. Each one mimed having intercourse with the corpse, then rubbed their genitalia against the bloody stump of its neck before dancing away, blood and ochre dripping down the insides of their thighs. â€Å"There's sort of a theme developing here,† I said. â€Å"I think I'm going to be sick,† Joshua said. â€Å"Mindful breath,† I said, using one of the phrases that Gaspar was always barking at us when we were learning meditation. I knew that if Joshua could stay with the yeti for days at a time without freezing to death, he could certainly conjure up the bodily control to keep from throwing up. The sheer magnitude of the carnage was all that was keeping me from vomiting. It was as if the atrocity of the whole scene couldn't fit in my mind all at once, so I could only see just enough for my sanity and my stomach to remain intact. A shout went up in the crowd now and I could see a torch-lit sedan chair being carried above the heads of the worshipers. On it reclined a half-naked man with a tiger skin wrapped around his hips, his skin painted light gray with ashes. His hair was plaited with grease and he wore the bones of a human hand as a skullcap. Around his neck hung a necklace of human skulls. â€Å"High priest,† I said. â€Å"They aren't even going to notice you, Biff. How can you even get their attention after they've seen all this?† â€Å"They haven't seen what I'm going to show them.† As the sedan chair emerged from the crowd in front of the altar, we could see a procession following it: tied to the back of the sedan chair was a line of naked children, most of them not more than five or six, their hands tied together, a less ornately dressed priest on either side of them to steady them. The priests began to untie the children and take them to the great wooden elephants lining the boulevard. Here and there in the crowd I could see people beginning to brandish edged weapons: short swords, axes, and the long-bladed spears Joshua and I had seen over the elephant grass. The high priest was sitting on the headless corpse, shouting a poem about the divine release of Kali's destruction or something. â€Å"Here we go,† I said, pulling the black glass dagger from under my sari. â€Å"Take this.† Joshua looked at the blade shimmering in the torchlight. â€Å"I won't kill anyone,† he said. Tears were streaming down his cheeks, drawing long red lines through the black and if anything making him look more fierce. â€Å"That's fine, but you'll need to cut them loose.† â€Å"Right.† He took the knife from me. â€Å"Josh, you know what's coming. You've seen it before. Nobody else here has, especially those kids. You can't carry all of them, so they have to have enough of their wits about them to follow you. I know you can keep them from being afraid. Put your teeth in.† Joshua nodded and slipped the row of crocodile teeth attached to a piece of rawhide under his upper lip, leaving the teeth to protrude like fangs. I put in my own false fangs, then ran into the dark to circle the crowd. As I approached the rear of the altar I pulled the special torch I'd made from under my girdle of human hands. (Actually my girdle of human hands was made of dried goat's udders stuffed with straw, but the Untouchable women had done a pretty good job as long as no one bothered to count fingers.) Through Kali's stone legs I could see the priests tying each of the children on the trunk of a wooden elephant. As soon as the bonds were tight, each priest drew a bronze blade and held it aloft, ready to strike off a finger as soon as the high priest gave the signal. I struck the tip of my torch on the edge of the altar, screamed for all I was worth, then threw my sari off and ran up the steps as the torch burst into dazzling blue flame that trailed sparks behind me as I ran. I hopped across the array of goat heads and stood between the legs of the statue of Kali, my torch held aloft in one hand, one of my severed heads swinging by the hair in the other. â€Å"I am Kali,† I screamed. â€Å"Fear me!† It came out sort of mumbled through my fake teeth. Some of the drums stopped and the high priest turned around and looked at me, more because of the bright light of the torch than my fierce proclamation. â€Å"I am Kali,† I shouted again. â€Å"Goddess of destruction and all this disgusting crap you have here!† They weren't getting it. The priest signaled for the other priests to come around me from the sides. Some of the female acolytes were already trying to make their way across the dance floor of decapitations toward me. â€Å"I mean it. Bow down to me!† The priests charged on. I did have the crowd's attention, though unfortunately they weren't cowering in fear at my angry goddessness. I could see Joshua moving around the wooden elephants, the guarding priests having left their posts to come after me. â€Å"Really! I mean it!† Maybe it was the teeth. I spit them out toward the nearest of my attackers. Running across a sea of slick, bloody heads is evidently a pretty difficult task. Not if you've spent the last six years of your life hopping from the top of one post to another, even in ice and snow, but for the run-of-the-mill homicidal priest, it's a tough row to hoe. The priests and acolytes were slipping and sliding among the goat and human heads, falling over each other, smacking into the feet of the statue, one even impaling himself on a goat's horn when he fell. One of the priests was only a few feet away from me now, trying not to fall on his own blade as he crawled over the mess. â€Å"I will bring destruction†¦oh, fuck it,† I said. I lit the fuse on the severed head I held in my hand, then swung it between my legs and tossed it in a steep arch over my head. It trailed sparks on its way into the black goddess's open maw, then disappeared. I kicked the approaching priest in the jaw, then danced across the goat heads, leapt over the head of the high priest, and was halfway to Joshua at the first wooden elephant when Kali, with a deafening report, breathed fire out over the crowd and the top of her head blew off. Finally, I had the crowd's attention. They were trampling each other to get away, but I had their attention. I stood in the middle of the boulevard, swinging my second severed head in a circle, waiting for the fuse to burn down before I let it sail over the heads of the receding crowd. It exploded in the air, sending a circle of flame across the sky and no doubt deafening some of the worshipers who were close. Joshua had seven of the children around him, clinging to his legs as he moved to the next elephant. Several of the priests had recovered and were storming down the steps of the altar toward me, knives in hand. I pulled another head from my garland, lit the fuse, and held it out to them. â€Å"Ah, ah, ah,† I cautioned. â€Å"Kali. Goddess of destruction. Wrath et cetera.† At the sight of the sparking fuse they stopped and began to backpedal. â€Å"Now that's the sort of respect you should have shown before.† I started whirling the head by the hair and the priests lost all semblance of courage and turned and ran. I hurled the head back up the boulevard onto the altar, where it exploded, sending a spray of real severed goat heads in all directions. â€Å"Josh! Duck! Goat heads!† Joshua pushed the children to the ground and fell over them until the pieces settled. He glared at me a second, then went on to free the other children. I hurled three more heads into different directions and now the entire temple square was nearly deserted but for Joshua, the children, a few injured worshipers, and the dead. I had built the bombs without any shrapnel in them, so those who had been injured had been trampled in the panic and the dead were those who had already been sacrificed to Kali. I think we pulled it off without killing anyone. As Joshua led the children down the wide boulevard and out of the temple square, I covered our exit, backing down the boulevard, my last explosive head swinging in one hand, my torch in the other. Once I saw that Joshua and the children were safely away, I lit the fuse, whirled the head around and let it fly toward the black goddess. â€Å"Bitch,† I said. I was out of sight when it exploded. Joshua and I got as far as a limestone cliff overlooking the Ganges before we had to stop to let the children rest. They were tired and hungry, but mostly they were hungry, and we had brought nothing for them to eat. At least, after Joshua's touch, they weren't afraid, and that gave them some peace. Josh and I were too jangled to sleep, so we sat up as the children lay down on the rocks around us and snored like kittens. Joshua held Rumi's little daughter, Vitra, and before long her face was smeared with black paint from nuzzling his shoulder. All through the night, as he rocked the child, all I heard Joshua say was, â€Å"No more blood. No more blood.† At first light we could see thousands, no, tens of thousands of people gathering at the banks of the river, all dressed in white, except for a few old men who were naked. They moved into the water and stood facing east, heads raised in anticipation, dotting the river as far as the eye could see. As the sun became a molten fingernail of light on the horizon, the muddy surface of the river turned golden. The gold light reflected off its surface onto the buildings, the shanties, the trees, the palaces, making everything in sight, including the worshipers, appear to have been gilded. And worshipers they were, for we could hear their songs from where we sat, and although we could not discern the words, we could hear that these were the songs of God. â€Å"Are those the same people from last night?† I said. â€Å"They would have to be, wouldn't they?† â€Å"I don't understand these people. I don't understand their religion. I don't understand how they think.† Joshua stood and watched the Indians bowing and singing to the dawn, looking occasionally to the face of the child that slept on his shoulder. â€Å"This is testament to the glory of God's creation, whether these people know it or not.† â€Å"How can you say that? The sacrifices to Kali, the way the Untouchables are treated. Whatever they might believe, in practice their religion is hideous.† â€Å"You're right. It's not right to condemn this child because she was not born a Brahman?† â€Å"Of course not.† â€Å"Then is it right to condemn her because she is not born a Jew?† â€Å"What do you mean?† â€Å"A man who is born a gentile may not see the kingdom of God. Are we, as Hebrews, any different from them? The lambs at the temple on Passover? The wealth and power of the Sadducees while others go hungry? At least the Untouchables can reach their reward eventually, through karma and rebirth. We don't allow any gentile to do so.† â€Å"You can't compare what they do to God's law. We don't sacrifice human beings. We feed our poor, we take care of the sick.† â€Å"Unless the sick are unclean,† Joshua said. â€Å"But, Josh, we're the chosen. It's God's will.† â€Å"But is it right? He won't tell me what to do. So I'll say. And I say, no more.† â€Å"You're not just talking about eating bacon, are you?† â€Å"Gautama the Buddha gave the way to people of all births to find the hand of God. With no blood sacrifice. Our doors have been marked with blood for too long, Biff.† â€Å"So that's what you think you're going to do? Bring God to everyone?† â€Å"Yes. After a nap.† â€Å"Of course, I meant after a nap.† Joshua held the little girl so I could see her face as she slept on his shoulder. When the children awoke we led them back to their families at the pits, handing them into the arms of their mothers, who snatched each child away from us as if we were devils incarnate; they glared over their shoulders as they carried the babies back to their pits. â€Å"Grateful bunch,† I said. â€Å"They are afraid that we've angered Kali. And we've brought them another hungry mouth.† â€Å"Still. Why did they help us if they didn't want their children back?† â€Å"Because we told them what to do. That's what they do. What they are told. That's how the Brahmans keep them in line. If they do what they are told, then perhaps they will not be Untouchables next life.† â€Å"That's depressing.† Joshua nodded. We only had little Vitra to return to her father now, and I was sure that Rumi would be happy to see his daughter. His distress over losing her had basically been the reason he had saved our lives. As we came over the sandstone rise we could see that Rumi was not alone in his pit. Rumi stood on his sitting rock, stark naked, sprinkling salt on his erect member as a large humpbacked cow, which nearly filled the rest of the pit, licked at the salt. Joshua held Vitra so she faced away from the pit, then backed away, as if he didn't want to disturb the moment of beefy intimacy. â€Å"A cow, Rumi?† I exclaimed. â€Å"I thought you people had beliefs.† â€Å"That's not a cow, that's a bull,† Joshua said. â€Å"Oh, that's got to be your super-bonus abomination there. Where we come from whole cities get destroyed for that kind of thing, Rumi.† I reached over and put my hand over Vitra's eyes. â€Å"Stay away from Daddy, honey, or you'll turn into a pillar of salt.† â€Å"But this is my wife, reincarnated.† â€Å"Oh, don't try that one on me, Rumi. For six years I lived in a Buddhist monastery where the only female company was a wild yak. I know from desperate.† Joshua grabbed my arm. â€Å"You didn't?† â€Å"Relax, I'm just making a point. You're the Messiah here, Josh. What do you think?† â€Å"I think we need to go to Tamil and find the third magus.† He set Vitra down and Rumi quickly pulled up his loincloth as the child ran to him. â€Å"Go with God, Rumi,† Joshua said. â€Å"May Shiva watch over you, you heretics. Thank you for returning my daughter.† Joshua and I gathered up our clothes and satchels, then bought some rice in the market and set out for Tamil. We followed the Ganges south until we came to the sea, where Joshua and I washed the gore of Kali from our bodies. We sat on the beach, letting the sun dry our skin as we picked pitch out of our chest hairs. â€Å"You know, Josh,† I said, as I fought a particularly stubborn gob of tar that had stuck in my armpit, â€Å"when you were leading those kids out of the temple square, and they were so little and weak, but none of them seemed afraid†¦well, it was sort of heartwarming.† â€Å"Yep, I love all the little children of the world, you know?† â€Å"Really?† He nodded. â€Å"Green and yellow, black and white.† â€Å"Good to know – Wait, green?† â€Å"No, not green. I was just fuckin' with you.†

Cultural Diversity in Nursing Essay

Introduction Cultural diversity in nursing is concept that is derived from nursing and other cross-cultural health-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology and anthropology. Culture is simply used to refer to the belief systems held by groups of people in the society. Therefore, cultural diversity is defined as, â€Å"the differences between people based on a shared ideology and valued set of beliefs, norms, customs, and meanings evidenced in a way of life† (Lowe & Archibald, 2009). Culture influences individual’s behavior, perceptions and also interpretations. Therefore, integrating culture in healthcare is critical. This is in efforts to create a healthcare system that is sensitive to the needs of patients. For that reason, this essay focuses on cultural diversity in nursing by looking at the background of the issue, current trends, significance to nursing profession, controversies and strategies for dealing with cultural diversity. Background and Historical Development of Cultural Diversity in Nursing As defined earlier, cultural diversity refers to, â€Å"the differences between people based on a shared ideology and valued set of beliefs, norms, customs, and meanings evidenced in a way of life† (Lowe & Archibald, 2009). In the healthcare system, there are people from different cultural groups. For instance, we have people from different racial groups, ethnicity, tribe, religion and so forth. This includes both the providers and the patients. To a great extent, our culture defines our practice. The concept of cultural diversity in nursing was first established in 1955 by Madeleine Leininger, one of the pioneers of transcultural nursing. As an area of knowledge, cultural diversity in nursing, also known as transcultural nursing, was aimed at equipping nurses with knowledge that  will help them in delivering culturally appropriate nursing care (Lowe & Archibald, 2009). Madeleine Leininger believed in the diversity and universality of cultural care. For that reason, he established transcultural nursing from the year 1955 to 1975. Madeleine refined the concept of transcultural nursing through the â€Å"sunrise model†. The expansion of the concept continued even after 1975 to present. In 1966, the University of Colorado started transcultural nursing courses. The concept was later established internationally in 1983 (Lowe & Archibald, 2009). Current Trends in Cultural Diversity Currently, there are several issues trending in regard to cultural diversity. Among them is the slow and episodic movement towards cultural diversity in nursing. According to Lowe and Archibald (2009) in the article entitled, â€Å"cultural diversity: The intention of nursing,† the nursing profession was since the introduction of cultural diversity in 1986 focused on provision of cultural-sensitive care. The authors express their concern that despite the continued cultural growth witnessed in the country, the same does not reciprocate inn nursing. The progress in nursing towards creating cultural diversity in nursing has been slow and episodic. Hence, there is need to put efforts in order to expand cultural-sensitive practices in nursing. Another trending issue in respect to creation of a cultural diversified healthcare system is promotion of diversity. According to Pilkington, Singh, Prescod and Buettgen (2013) youth mentorship provides an important avenue for promoting cultural diversity. Through mentoring the youth, they will be equipped with relevant knowledge regarding diversity which will result in creation of a society which embraces diversity. Significance of Cultural Diversity Cultural diversity is a crucial concept in healthcare. Our current society is made of people from different ethnic, racial, religious and tribal groups. All these groups have their own culture. It is worth to mention that our culture affects how we interpret information, our perceptions and even  behavior. These aspects of culture make it important in nursing practice. The patient is always the center focus of care. Hence, the nurse is required to be sensitive to the needs of the patient. It is only through consideration of patient needs that the nurse is capable of establishing a strong therapeutic relationship with the patient. Establishing a strong relationship of trust with patients is important in involving the patients fully in their care (Pilkington, Singh, Prescod & Buettgen, 2013). Among the needs of patients are the spiritual needs. Nurses in some cases will handle patients from different faiths. Under such cases, the nurse might not be aware of some of the spiritual needs of these patients. For instance, let us take a Christian nurse and a Muslim patient. Muslims are supposed to pray five times in a day, and cleanse themselves with water every time they visit a washroom. The failure of the nurse to identify such things may hinder creation of trust between the nurse and the patient. In other words, the nurse will fail to deliver culturally-competent care (Lowe & Archibald, 2009). Therefore, providing culturally competent care is important in efforts to increase patient satisfaction, which translates to improved patient outcomes which signify improvement in quality of nursing care. Impact of Cultural Diversity in Nursing Profession The issue of cultural diversity greatly influences nursing profession and professional nursing practice. Nursing as a profession has for many years struggled to be seen as a field which is aimed at providing optimal care to the public. The profession is determined to be viewed in the light of universality, meaning it embraces people from all cultures. Therefore, by integrating cultural diversity, nursing profession will be recognized and respected in all parts of the world (Lowe & Archibald, 2009). In the nursing practice, cultural diversity is paramount. Every healthcare facility and provider is determined to provide patient-centered care. This is due to the fact that among the six goals of healthcare is provision of  patient-centered care. In order to provide patient-centered care, it is important to understand all the needs of the patient. This includes the culture. The nurse should understand what food the patient takes or does not take his or her beliefs and dressing style, among others. By doing so, the nurse will gain the trust from the patient which is important in the care. Eventually, the patient is satisfied with the quality of care which results in improved patient outcomes (Pilkington, Singh, Prescod & Buettgen, 2013). Controversies Related to Nursing Despite the benefits associated with integration of cultural diversity in healthcare, there are some areas of this concept that have brought about some controversies. Some cultural beliefs or practice are in contrary with the goals of healthcare. For instance, there are some people based on their faith who refuse to take any medication or seek conventional treatment. Hence, under such cases there is a controversy on which way to handle the situation (Pilkington, Singh, Prescod & Buettgen, 2013). The other area of controversy is extreme faiths held by some people. In some cultures, some behaviors such as undressing before someone of opposite sex are considered immoral. Hence, when a nurse from an opposite gender s handling such a patient, there is always some controversy. Enhancing Cultural Diversity in Nursing As noted, cultural diversity is critical in nursing practice. Therefore, there is need to embrace this concept. In order to improve the progress towards establishing cultural competence in nursing, it is important to introduce courses on cultural diversity in nurse training curriculum (Pilkington, Singh, Prescod & Buettgen, 2013). Another way of promoting cultural diversity in nursing is through training nurses on the importance having diversity at workplace. In addition, recruitment of nurses from different cultures will help in enhancing diversity in nursing. My Position Personally, I support the establishment of cultural diversity in nursing. My  position is based on the benefits associated with establishment of this concept. Hence, enhancing cultural diversity is crucial in improving the quality of care (Pilkington, Singh, Prescod & Buettgen, 2013). Conclusion In conclusion, cultural diversity refers to â€Å"the differences between people based on a shared ideology and valued set of beliefs, norms, customs, and meanings evidenced in a way of life (Lowe & Archibald, 2009).† Cultural diversity in nursing is important in improving the quality of care. The concept of transcultural nursing was established in 1955 by Madeleine Leininger (Lowe & Archibald, 2009). American Nurses Association adopted the concept of cultural diversity in 1986. Currently, the progress of nursing profession towards establishment of culturally competent care is trending. Establishing a culturally competent nursing care is an important milestone in improving quality of care. References Lowe, J. & Archibald C. (2009).Cultural diversity: The intention of nursing. Nursing Forum Volume 44, No. 1. Pilkington, F., Singh, D., Prescod C. & Buettgen, A. (2013). Inclusive Mosaic: Promoting Diversity in Nursing through Youth Mentorship. International Journal of Nursing Education Scholarship Vol. 10(1): 1–10

Entrepreneurial Processes and the Social Construction of Opportunity Essay

Entrepreneurial Processes and the Social Construction of Opportunity - Essay Example The work is able to help with sending messages about social trends, such as the environment, or helps individuals to improve quality of life. Combining creative programs with sending specific message from commission then provides a different platform to send messages and to create responses within the community (Impact Arts, 2011). Understanding the successes and potential of this particular group and evaluating the ideologies of becoming a successful entrepreneur within this platform works as a main objective in establishing continuous growth within the community. Characteristics of an Entrepreneur The characteristics of being an entrepreneur are based on individual attributes that reflect in the corporation that is created. The qualities of an entrepreneur are inclusive of innovation, leadership, vision and the ability to focus with the necessary results for the idea which is being created. This is combined with the need to tap into the needs of the day while focusing on trends and the ability to find different objectives which are able to reach the external environment. The different values which are required for entrepreneurs are then combined with creating role models that are able to motivate individuals within the community as well as provide assistance with others who are working with the business and require assistance with the different functions required (Bosma et al, 2011). When looking at Impact Arts, it can be noted that the main attributes of the company are helping to drive forward the ideologies of what is needed. This begins with the individuals who began the company. The vision and the ability to piece this together for specific needs are easily noted, specifically because of the innovation which is a part of the company. This is combined with the foundation of the company, specifically with the values and principles that drive forward the company. This establishment is followed by the ability for the main board members and the team members t o work together to create the main focuses for growth within the corporation. Combining this with innovation that is required through the artists becomes the most important aspect of the company while creating a different approach to the projects. The ability for Impact Arts to continue to move forward is reliant on the entrepreneurial basis that includes the vision, leadership and continuous implementation of projects for the community. The concepts of being an entrepreneur and the processes which are associated with this are furthered with the understanding of total innovation management. The characteristics of entrepreneurs are divided by those who have leadership and specific skills to others that have a sense of innovation that follows with specific trends. Total innovation management in entrepreneurs; however, helps to set apart individuals to different needs within the corporation. This is combined with the ideology of internal entrepreneurship, which continues to drive forwa rd the vision and management within the corporation. The idea of having entrepreneurial components then becomes based on combining the start to a company to continuing to offer innovation and growth within the corporation for different projects and maintenance of the company (Qingrui, 2005). For Impact Art, this is noted through the longer time which it has existed. The ability to have artists use their complete creativity also reflects the innovation manage

Functional and Structural Modeling Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Functional and Structural Modeling - Coursework Example Introduction Functional modeling generally deals with the activity of developing models of devices, objects and processes of a system based on their functionalities. It is basically concerned with representing knowledge about functions which forms a basis for solving problems related to system representation. It shows how general system goals are achieved through the realization of the sub goals via the system sub functions. According to Tauber, functional model represents a part of the designer’s intention, the design rationale. (pg 12). Structural modeling on the other hand entails data structure description, that is, it describes the structure of data that is supports the business processes of an organization. There are different ways of representing the structure of data used in a system including class diagrams, object diagrams and CRD cards. Structural modeling Structural modeling in system analysis and design is useful in various ways but the main purpose of structural models is to represent ideas, things and important concepts in the application domain. In addition, structural models are used to create a vocabulary for analysts and users. According to Wixom, It is also used in order to reduce the schematic gap between the real world and the software world ( chpt 7 pg 6) Classes, attributes, relationships and operations constitutes the four major components of structural modeling. Classes are templates for creating objects or instances and can either be concrete or abstract. Classes’ example may include user interface data structure and application domain. Class diagrams are used in structural modeling to represent classes, show their attributes, operations and their relationships. Attributes on the other hand are used to describe classes and only important and relevant attributes to the task are included in the structural modeling. An attribute can be public, private or protected depending on its visibility type. Objects or instances can t ake actions known as operations while relationships show how classes are associated. Operations can be broadly grouped into update (changes value of attributes), query (makes information about state available) and constructor which create an object. Functional modeling Functional modeling include various design element such modules, processes inputs and outputs, interfaces and design of databases and files. A fully functional system is made up of a collection of small independent subsystems called modules. The modules are coded and designed separately after which they are brought together to form a complete and fully functional system. Shared use and size are some of the factors to be considered while coding a designing a module. Limiting the number of instructions in a module ensures a small size module which recommended compared to a large module. Duplication of functions in modules should be avoided by creating a single module which can be called by other modules in case of need. System functions consist of processes which are specific acts with definable beginning and ending points beside inputs and outputs. Processes may be distinct but share certain common properties such as: processes identify what is done and not how, they posses definable starting and ending points, processes are carried out irrespective of organizational structure. Interface is an important part of any computerized system since it provides the platform for the user to interact

Current topics in HR Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Current topics in HR - Research Paper Example which was concerned with the installation of an appropriate course of action for trying and certifying hour and wage class judgments, made the process of class certification more accurate. The court recommended that a feasible trial plan should be set up, which should give equal contemplation to both the existing class issues along with those issues that would be practiced with managerial efficiency while respecting the rights of the employers (Crain and Kim 7-8). The plan would also sanction presenting evidences by the employer, which were pertinent to the subjects of both damages and liabilities. It must also permit the employers to formulate the use of confirmatory defenses towards the class as a whole or mainly some members belonging to the class (Jones Day Publications, â€Å"California Supreme Court Ruling to Make Class Certification Process More Rigorous†). This case came under the Supreme Court’s judgment, fought by Henry Jong, an outpatient pharmacy manager for Kaiser against the company. The manager claimed that he had owed unpaid overtime that had been earned from the suspected â€Å"off-the-clock† hours, which either the company knew or was supposed to know that Jong had worked. In his statement, the manager testified that he was aware of the policy that mentioned compensation of payment for all worked hours of Kaiser and also that he was recognizable with Kaiser’s rules of timekeeping and time recording system. Jong however agreed that he had signed a deed named â€Å"Attestation Form for Hourly Managers and Supervisors – Working Off-the-Clock not allowed†. The manager disclosed the fact that he did not knew if anybody in the Kaiser’s organization was aware that he was working off-the-clock. Finally, Jong submitted that he had rang an alarm code data from his pharmacy that was cross refer enced from his time records, which indicated that he had disarmed the alarm before the actual time, which he reported to begin his work. The subordinate trial

Assigment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Assigment - Essay Example Usually, people are advised to just get the form from the health-care facility that they are being treated in since they would have the standard Advance Directive Form that the state prescribes. All in all, it is safe, for people if they want to be extra careful to use the advance directive form drafted by the American Medical Association in conjunction with the American Association of Retired Persons and the American Bar Association. This form is a legally-binding documents in all states. The Form must also be filled in with at least two witnesses present. These witnesses must also satisfy specific requirements, which I should comply with. Healthcare staffs are well-versed in these areas so anybody in my position can expect help from them. In addition all of the entries therein must be comprehensively and correctly filled in. This is the reason why it is important to employ the help of an attorney to determine this â€Å"completeness.† An error in the document can be used as a legal ground to dispute my state of mind when the Form was completed and, hence, invite legal disputes later on. Living will and a health care power of attorney are two types of advance directives. The former is defined as the â€Å"document whose purpose is to specify the person’s end-of-life care instruction† and that â€Å"whether that end-of-life directive also includes the appointment of a health care proxy in a combination form will be specified in each reference.† (Cebuhar 2006, p. 43) The health care power-of-attorney, on the other hand, refers to the permission of the conveyance to the agent or proxy of one’s powers to make health care decisions upon loss of decision-making capacity and that it â€Å"can be used to request or refuse treatment, giving this legal instrument greater scope and power than the living will in most jurisdictions.† (Gallo and Reichel 1999, p. 816) Living will is important for me as a patient because it expresses my wishes on the future whether I

Contribution toward ENG 105 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Air Pollution in London Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

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Peer Victimization in Schools Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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Bible Scripture Virture Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

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How Intervention Strategies Contribute to Change Essay Example for Free

How Intervention Strategies Contribute to Change Essay Anne-Marie van Oost, Master of commercial sciences and Innovation Management, InduTec asbl/vzw, avenue Nellie Melbalaan 73, 1070 Brussels, [emailprotected] Jacques Tichon, Dr. Ing., Haute Ecole Paul-Henri Spaak, rue Royale 150, 1000 Brussels, [emailprotected] Summary Change involves moving from one condition to another. Change is not necessarily innovation. But an organisation that finds a fundamentally new way to reach and serve its customers has achieved an innovation. Organisations are changing at a record pace to keep up with an environment that demands more performance. Some organisations are doing a good job of changing to meet new performance requirements. These organisations know that change is the rule and that they will need to master change to continue to thrive. Every manager who has tried to guide an organisational change has experienced the reality of having to run the business while changing the business.Running an organisation and changing an organisation are two different kind of jobs each requiring different mindsets and skill sets. That wouldn’t be a problem if changes didn’t come along often and an organisation could just keep doing what it had been doing and still satisfy customers and stakeholders. But today’s environment is very different than it was a few years ago, and change is now the rule and not the exception. Employees must be able to perform as well during the change as they perform when the organisation is not changing. Unfortunately most managers and employees have been overtrained to perform in a no change, and undertrained to perform during change. This article will give you some theoretical concepts you will need to better understand the need of mastering change. 1. How to make organisational change happen? What is the importance ‘to  intervene’ 2. Are all organisations having trouble changing? Lots of organisations are not changing well enough to avoid negative consequences. Change implies inevitably resistance. 3. It is leadership that focuses the organisation on its new direction, whether that direction comes first from the leader hi/herself or from the mind of others. It is leadership that must coordinate the processes of change so that the organisation does not lose its way. It is leadership that supplies the courage for continued change in the face of the inevitable resistance and disappointment along the way. 1. INTRODUCTION Change has to do with ‘learning oganisations’. The concept has found favour in organisational development and management studies through the work of Senge, Nonaka Takeuchi, and others. , who have highlighted the importance of building ‘learning organisations’. The thinking is that only organisations that can learn fast will be equipped for the period of rapid change. Heifetz and Lauria state firmly that: â€Å"Solutions to adaptive challenges reside not in the executive suite but in the collective intelligence of employees at all levels†1. In order to improve organisational performance, there must be recognition that change and the turbulence it generates will undoubtedely affects all parts of the system.That is why it is one of the fundamental tasks of leadership to balance attention to the management of performance with attention to the management of change and uncertainty Academic Education focuses on technical and mental competences and stresses the need to train skills required for executive functions and leadership. Public and private enterprise would very much welcome purposeful and efficient training for leadership skills, but very often cannot find properly trained applicants for managerial positions.2 Leading people means asking people to change. One has to learn how to change,  one has to really want change and go for it. If people don’t really want to learn and change, it will not happen. That is why changing is so difficult. With this paper some concepts and models are introduced from literature that offer some insight into the management of change. But keep in mind that models may offer some insight, but at the same time they show and conceal reality, because they are one-sided by definition. â€Å"If change really is of the essence, if you really wish to see change occur at the behaviour level, for example to see managers manage changes differently or to see a greater amount of teamwork, then you have to think of something that compels such behaviour† (Eric Van de Reed, P., Extraordinary leadership, creating strategies for change, Kogan Page, UK, 2001. Pfeiffer, J.W., voorwoord in , Situationeel leiding geven, Uitgeverij Business Contact, Amsterdam, 2006 2 1 Loo).3 This article deals with behaviour interventions, topics like resistance and power as important derivatives, as well as leadership in relation to change. 1.1 Intervening as a technique and phenomenon To intervene means that someone forces their way into an existing system of relationships, people, groups or objects with the aim of improving it. In processes of change intervening as a technique and phenomenon is an important topic. But keep in mind that models may offer some insight, but at the same time they show and conceal reality, because they are one-sided by definition. Aryris defines ‘to intervene’ as follows.4 â€Å"Organisations do not perform the actions that produce the learning. It is individuals acting as agents of organisations who produce the behaviour that leads to learning. Organisations can create conditions that may significantly influence what  individuals frame as the problem, design as a solution, and produce as action to solve a problem. Whenever an error is detected and corrected without questioning or altering the underlying values of the system (be it individual, group, intergroup, organisational or interorganisational), the learning is single-loop. The term is borrowed from electrical engineering: a thermostat is defined as a single-loop learner. The thermostat is ‘programmes’ to detect states of â€Å"too cold† or â€Å"too hot†, and to correct the situation by turning the heat on or off. If the thermostat asked itself such questions as why it was set at 68 degrees, ot why it was programmed as it was, then it would be a double-loop learner.† Single-loop learning occurs when matches are created, or when mismatches are corrected by changing actions. Double-loop learning occurs when mismatches are corrected by first examining and altering the governing variables and then the actions. Governing ariables are the preferred states that individuans strive to â€Å"satisfice† when they are acting. These governing variabes are not the underlying beliefs or values people espouse. They are the ten have, Steven en Wouter, Verandering,over het doordacht werken aan de organisatie, Uitgeverij Nieuwezijds, 2004 4 Argyris, C. ,On organisational learning, Blackwell Publishing, 2004 3 variables that can be inferred, by observing the actions of individuals acting as agents for the organisation, to drive and guide their actions. This is where intervention shows up. In case you don’t handle the double –loop thinking, you become a servant of the status quo!! In his â€Å"Intervention theory and method: a behavioral science view, Argyris presents 3 methods of intervention: 1. To rely on knowledge and know-how already present in an intervener. Success is pretty much guaranteed as the proven methods put a client at ease. 2. To use in a creative manner a combination of different sources of existing knowledge of an intervener from previous situations. This requires more time than the first approach. 3. A third approach builds on the first two methods: to combine sources of knowledge of an intervener with those of a client. In this way, an  intervention helps a client to understand a problem and the intervention contributes to the theoretical knowledge base of an intervener. This approach is less common, but should be preferred over the first 2 methods. The joint development of conceptual models not only helps the client, but is also useful for future cases an intervener has to deal with. In this way, an intervener tries to translate specific issues of a client to generally applicable rules and views the various interventions and strategies of change as complementary. Harrison, R.5 sees the different methods and strategies for change as complementary . He does not consider the methods as different ways of doing the same thing, but rather as different ways of doing different things. Harrison contends there is a need for a conceptual model that indicates which strategy is suitable for which problem. A distinction in this regard might be the depth of the intervention at an individual, emotional level. Harrison explains depth according to 5 strategies: 1. Operations analysis: this approach (very little depth) addresses the use of roles and functions within an organisation. The strategy is aimed at bringing about change in the relationship between the different roles. The assumption is that people are exchangeable to a significant degree. Thus, relevant skills, needs and values of people within an organisation should be discernable. Harrison, R. Choosing the depth of Organisational Intervention , Journal of applied Behavioral Science, 181-200 5 2. Management by objectives: (an approach with a little more depth) This approach addresses the individual results. The individual and the manager agree on the services to be provided. The process (how to achieve those results) remains latent. 3. Instrumental process analysis: This strategy does address the process: what is someone’s work style and what is its influence on others within an organisation? A particular person is the focus of attention: what stimulates and curbs someone’s performance and how can negotiations be conducted between groups and individuals in order to achieve better results through work behaviour and work relationships? 4. Interpersonal relationships: . (this approach exhibits a great deal of depth). The intervention focuses on feelings co-workers have vis-à  -vis each  other and is aimed at improving teamwork. 5. Intra-personal analysis: (deepest level of intervention). A person is hit in their core with the aim of gaining more insight into the inner self as well as into relationships with ‘significant others’. The level of depth has different effects on an organisation: The more depth a method has, the more difficult the intervention is. The more depth there is, the more personal the result is, the less transferable it is. As an intervention becomes more personal, the amount of available information shrinks. The predictability of the outcome of an intervention decreases as the depth of an intervention increases. Conclusion: there should not be more depth than necessary to obtain a long-lasting solution to the current problems. 1.2 Resistance Whenever there is talk of change or change is in the air, resistance is just around the corner. It is important to ascertain where exactly processes of change are bogged down and what the underlying dynamics are. Boonstra frequently attributes resistance to blocked relationship patterns. Van de Loo makes a slight differentiation and describes resistance as non-rational reactions and specifically relationships suffering from a non-open, safe and insular environment. Kotter Schlesinger6, Readings in Managerial Psychology, 1989, 664-678, lay out a strategic approach to organisation change. Major changes and a low tolerance level in coworkers cause resistance. Managers are aware of the role played by resistance but few take that into account in defining the approach. The 4 most common reasons for resistance are: 1. Parochial self-interest: employees believe they are losing something valuable. Self-interest is placed above the company’s interest. This type of resistance often is reflected in subtle, political behaviour that is  exhibited before and during a change if the interests of a co-worker or of a group of co-workers do not match the organisation’s interest. 2. Misunderstanding and lack of trust: If co-workers do not understand the consequences and believe there will be more downsides than upsides to a change, they may also fee resistance. It is therefore key to clarify ambiguities as quickly as possible and to inspire as much trust as possible. 3; Different assessments: This situation often is created when different groups have different information available. Employees may get the impression that a change will have more drawbacks than benefits, both for themselves and for the entire organisation. 4. Low tolerance for change: This type of resistance stems from uncertainty and fear over not meeting the demands in terms of new skills and behaviour, even as co-workers realise change will be beneficial. There is also the fear over loss of face if change is perceived as doubt over previous activities. Major changes and low tolerance for change on the part of co-workers breed resistance. Kotter Schlesinger identify roughly 6 ways of dealing with resistance (strategy): 1. education and communication: especially in cases where resistance is caused by wrong or insufficient information, education and communication in advance can help reduce the level of resistance as well as the amount of time and effort put in. 2. participation and involvement: involving potential opponents in change can help prevent resistance. Participation leads to commitment. 3. support (training, time off after a heavy period, listening and providing emotional support,..: if it is fear and concern that cause resistance, support is the best medicine. 4. negotiation and agreement: offering incentives to active or political opponents can also reduce resistance. This method is effective if co-workers are losing position. The drawbacks are the high costs and the fact that a manager weakens his position once it becomes apparent that he is open to negotiation. Kotter,J.P. Schlesinger L.A. , Choosing strategies for change, Readings in Managerial Psychology, 1989, 664-678 6 5. manipulation and co-optation: manipulation boils down to selective use of information; cooptation is to appoint a co-worker to an important post at the time of design or implementation. However, if co-workers feel like they  have been misled, this will give rise to even more resistance than had no action been taken. 6. explicit and implicit coercion: to coerce co-workers into accepting change, for instance by threatening dismissal or transfer. The selection of the method for implementing change depends on the desired speed, the level of planning in advance, the involvement of co-workers as well as the alternatives. To increase the level of success, a manager may do the following: 1. perform an organisation analysis representing the current situation, the problems and their causes. Also, such an analysis provides insight into the speed at which problems should be solved as well as the type of change needed. 2. draw up a list of factors that are important for the change needed. This will increase the insight into who may put up resistance, why and how much, who has the necessary information, whose cooperation is crucial for the implementation and what the relationship between initiators and co-workers is like. 3. select a strategy of change, based on the analyses set out above. This strategy determines the speed of change and the level of planning and participation. 4. monitor the process of change in order to anticipate unexpected events during the process of change in a timely and adequate manner. 1.3 Leadership It is becoming more and more evident that the way the human potential is made use of, is the standard to judge the success of an organisation. The outcome of our striving for excellency depends upon the way we manage to offer leadership. Our own staff and employees will decide if our organisation will prosper. It was Paul Hersey’s challenge to develop a model of leadership that is both practical and based on clear, universal and logical concepts. The model he has developed is called ‘Situational Leadership’7. 7 Hersey, P., The situational leader, Uitgeverij Business Contact Amsterdam, 2006 In this model first the dimensions ‘Guiding’ and ‘Supporting’ as instruments to influence people have been entered on the two-dimensional chart. By ‘Guiding’ Hersey means actions that instruct people what to do, how and when to do it, and who specifically has to do it. ‘Supporting’ contains listening, encouraging, creating conditions, showing appreciation and empathy. Then the 4 quadrants are entered into the model to show the 4 different styles or manners of leadership.

Feminism in Legal Jurisprudence and Social Analysis

Feminism in Legal Jurisprudence and Social Analysis Discuss critically the contribution of feminist thought to social and legal analysis. Consider the extent to which you regard feminism as a distinctive and coherent approach to these fields of enquiry. Introduction This paper will critically examine the feminist contribution to legal jurisprudence and social analysis. The theoretical range and methodologies of feminist dialogue will be investigated in context of legal philosophy and social academic discourse. First, classical social theories of law will be discussed in order to asses the value of feminist analysis of social theories. In particular the feminist investigation of the socio economic theory of Marxism will be discussed in order to understand the sociological perspectives concerning the role women played in the social order. Secondly, aspects of feminist legal inquiries looking at thematic issues central to feminist thought will be analyzed. In relation to this, internal academic criticisms between feminist factions will be addressed to highlight the sheer diversity of feminist legal jurisprudence. This essay will aim to demonstrate that feminism is a distinctive inquisitive range of inquiry, but it is not a unified approach to lega l and sociological fields. In this sense its pluralism and diversity can at times leave the movement fractured and divided. But this essay argues that this does not diminish the ability of the movement to raise important ideas while tackling broad theoretical academic queries. Feminism thought: contextual origins Feminism thought originated from a historically wide ranging social debates and theories. It can trace roots back to the women’s liberation movement which gained momentum in the 60’s and 70’s along side other social struggles in the same era, notably the American civil rights movement. Feminist thought is indefinable as a single unitary theory. Feminist thought primarily is a ‘diverse, competing and often opposing collection of social theories, political movements and moral philosophies.’[1] The innermost guiding issue is to critically discuss the role of women and their experiences in various social, political and economical contexts. Issues of inequality, discrimination, institutional female representation, socialized or biological constructions of gender differences and resulting cultural implications are a just a few lines of inquiry explored by modern Western feminist thought. Thus feminist thinking is a multifarious and pluralistic academic dis cipline. There is ‘no single form of feminism that represents all feminists.’[2] Social feminist theories Feminist legal thought, it can be suggested, has made a substantial contribution to social analysis. It is a relatively new area of analysis for feminist scholars. Feminist social theory examines social relations between the sexes, expressly looking at how societal actions can be transported into the public domain for the emancipation of women. It is suggested feminist social theory has made pivotal contributions[3] and changes in modern society. It has worked to revolutionize existing attitudes with reference to social structures. It is argued, that recent social changes have been achieved through the committed agitation of feminist thinkers who fully participating in socially engaged issues such as women’s rights and reform. This has resulted in the ‘increased involvement of women in public life’[4] suggesting feminist legal thought has in some small way played a part to advance equality of the sexes. In this sense, social feminism is continually evolving[5] thr ough analytic inquiries to understand female subordination which assimilates issues of class and gender. This includes the consideration of wider factors related to identity, race, and ethnicity. By focusing on such factors, Holmstrom argues social feminist academics aim to ‘help use this analysis to liberate women.’[6] In this context, feminist thought has been able to add confidently to general social theory. For example feminist inquiries of social theory have helped to change the way sociologists previously conceptualized social theories, by focusing upon reoccurring lines of inquiry. For example, first, feminist social theory discusses biological differences and socialized activity in society. Secondly the interpretative meaning and explanation of what the term ‘social’ can mean has been praised as helping to erect a broader scope of inquiry than exhibited by earlier forms of sociology. As a direct consequence it is argued ‘feminist theories have moved beyond the issue of women and point the way to a more creative form’ of intellectual inquiry.[7] Thirdly, social feminists have usually examined patterned links between males and females which are socially structured. This can be seen in the work of Catherine Mackinnon discussed below. Finally, the feminist inquiry looks into how particular social relationships are formed and the structural workings of societal institutions.[8] It’s methods of examining ‘the meaning of the â€Å"social†, how a person’s experience affects her understanding of the social world and how males and females relate to each other’ has led sociologists to rethink previously established and influential social theories.[9] Critiques of classical social theory This impact is most noticeably seen in the radical feminist analysis of traditional social theories such as Marxism. Mackinnon [10] and Sydie[11] critically reveal how classical theories of Marx, Weber and Durkheim marginalized women to varying degrees, in order to promote social and economic aspects of their theories. Thus a major criticism leveled at classical theory is that women are fundamentally ignored by male sociologists who were preoccupied with the ‘male activities, experiences and parts of society dominated by males.’[12] For example, sociological classical theories are formulated within context of industrial society and economies. Feminists argue that capitalism helped to expand the male public sphere of influence through industrial structures. This expansion in turn was balanced by the constraint of females in the domestic private section of society, with almost no engagement in public, political or economic events.[13] This can be seen in women’s ele ctoral disenfranchisement and the suffragette movement in 18th and 19th century England. Feminist analysis of Marxist ideas A large area of feminist discourse concerns Marxist ideas. Marxism is analyzed through its historical materiality and approach. It conceptualizes history as distinct ‘succession of modes of production.’[14] Each stage of society’s historical development will progress through evolving social stages such as feudalism, capitalism and socialism. Such phases are characterized by unique modes of production. Such modes of production within the economy are made up by the integral power relations between the ‘direct producers and the owners of the means of production’ who exploit workers. Holstrom explains that within Marxist theory, issues of inequality and class division are utilized by feminist scholars to extend the range of social inquiry. Further more, they are used to examine societal divisions between the sexes, and the ‘process through which social relations of gender are created organized, expressed and directed’ as such gender relations fundamentally ‘create society.’[15] For example Mackinnon provided an influential feminist account of the social and economic theories of Marx: Marxism and feminism provide accounts of the way social arrangements of patterned and cumulative disparity which can be internally rational and systematic, yet unjust. Both are theories of power and social inequality. As Marxism exposes value as a social creation, feminism exposes a desire of the socially relational[16], internally necessary to unequal social orders. Thus, Marxist study is focused on the production of commodities for exchange and the subsequent social exploitation encouraged by this phenomenon. Feminist thought argues Marxist emphasis is placed on creative human labour which sustains the productive economy. In analyzing the modes of production and social exploitation, the societal theory neglects females who were not seen to be exploited in the same way as male workers as they did not constitute the oppressed labor force.[17] A further example of the disregard of women’s contribution to the production of commodities is the female role in the private sphere. It can be suggested that Marx ‘spends little time analyzing goods and services produced in the household and family’[18] where the trade is non commercial. Thus, feminist theory provided a valuable analytic discourse exposing the fallacy that Marxist ideas discuss all types of labour. It is in fact, limited by the barrier of gender inequalities. It failed t o adequately investigate such discrepancies according to feminist criticisms. Such external activities outside the market, such as reproduction which biologically provides the supply of labour from the family, are taken for granted by Marx.[19] Thus, feminist thought crucially highlighted how Marxism failed to comprehensively debate how a woman’s domestic and familial role aided the value of labor power as an economic commodity in society. Social theory examines many aspects of gender differences and inequality, factors which the works of classical sociologists developed no such theories about. Feminists revealed deep-seated conceptual weaknesses in such theories. For example Mackinnon’s critique of Marx discusses the notion that within the idea of class relations, women were to Marx defined by nature[20] and not by society. Therefore Marxism offers no authoritative scrutiny on the role of women within class division of society. Social feminist disciplines are argued by Adams and Sydie to help voice challenging questions which are ‘women centered in perspective, questions core concepts and assumptions of sociology’[21], and asks how change can produce a more socially acceptable human society for the sexes. In summary this paper believes feminist thought has performed a pivotal function in reassessing the nature of traditional sociological theories such as Marxism. In doing so, feminist scholars have created new perceptions of sociological theories in relation to discussing women in society. Feminist Legal and Jurisprudence Feminist legal theory, developed from the Critical Legal Studies School of jurisprudential thought. Feminist legal theory, aims broadly to: Analyze the contribution of law constructing, maintaining, reinforcing and perpetuating patriarchy and it looks at the ways in which this patriarchy can be undermined and ultimately eliminated.[22] According to the writer Leslie Bender patriarchy is a term used by feminists to address the ‘ubiquitous phenomenon of male domination.’[23] Discussion of patriarchy allows feminist discourse to examine social and legal power relations, primarily as men have used institutional methods of power to subordinate women. These methods of power ‘manifest itself in the political and economic world that governs families and sexual relationships.’[24] Freeman argues that this fundamental belief in social patriarchy is the only primary notion which brings together feminist legal theoretical discourse as a whole body.[25] Theoretical lines of inquiry stemming from the Critical Legal school, demonstrates that feminist legal thinking also aspires to create a basic critic of the: ‘inherent logic of law, the indeterminacy and manipulability of doctrine, the role of law, in legitimating particular social relations, the illegitimate hierarchies created by law and legal regulations.’[26] In this sense, feminist legal theories endeavor to locate and identify the underlying imbalances in legal rules and institutional structures in society, assessing the impact upon women as a whole. In a wider context, feminist thought is seen as an inevitable progression in academic debate into the area of jurisprudence. Ashe argues it is a ‘natural progression of the engagement of female reflection to one more area of discourse’ in view of other feminist studies in sociology, philosophy and history.[27] Therefore the extent of feminist contributions to legal jurisprudence can not be underestimated. It forms a solid ‘committed inquiry’ according to Dalton[28] in order to address female subordination, analyzing fundamental questions as to how and why mechanisms operate and succeed in placing women in such social positions. Furthermore feminist inquiry into law is a vital contribution for those studying the field. For example, this author believes continued fem ale expression and analytical work helps promote feminist legal jurisprudence within mainstream discourse. Dalton pessimistically characterizes the belief that from an outsiders view it is ‘beyond the pale’ to be a ‘women who teaches and writes as a woman, expressing women’s concerns.’[29] This paper would doubt the assertion that the role of academic feminist legal thought is viewed so disparagingly by mainstream society. Feminist legal thought may be thought of as a selective field of inquiry, but it is important for legal jurisprudence that all aspects of the law are examined from a variety of theoretical standpoints. This enables academics to discover and discuss the nature of law as an evolving social institution in a comprehensive manner. It helps to frame feminist jurisprudential within an inquisitive, exploratory framework which guides such discourse. This enables academics to focus on particular points in the discussion. This can be demonstrated by Heather Wishik,[30] in which feminist legal inquiry concentrates on answering the following analytical questions to provide a structurally coherent focus within the legal field: 1. What have been and what are now all women’s experiences of the ‘life situation addressed by the doctrine, process or area of law under examination? 2. What assumptions, descriptions, assertions and or definitions of experience – male, female or gender neutral –does the law make in this area? 3. What is the area of mismatch, distortion or denial created by the differences between women’s life experiences and the laws assumptions or imposed structures? 4. What patriarchal interests are served by the mismatch? 5. What reforms have been proposed in this area of law or women’s life situation? How will these reform proposals if adopted, affect women both practically and ideologically? 6. In an ideal world what would this woman’s life situation look like and what relationship if any, would law have to this future life situation? Such an analytical framework and inquiry demonstrates the reasoned theoretical approach plotted by feminist legal thought within jurisprudence. Locating specific questions enables feminist legal discussion to examine areas of law with purpose and structure, while sustaining its clear purpose of understanding the position of females operating within social structures. Feminist Legal Methodology To understand how feminist thought in relation to law is carried out, it is necessary to discuss the methodology of the academic school. The methodology can be simplified into three main points. First, it challenges the ‘positivist empirical tradition’ arguing that it is assumptive to accept the validity of observation and objective measurement. Feminist legal theorists therefore challenge a firmly established positivist concept within jurisprudence, that through a neutral standpoint the ‘truth or reality will emerge.’[31] Lacey discusses the ‘supposed’ neutral framework for legal reasoning such as the rule of law which is central to liberal and positivist legal philosophy. The idea of the rule of law is that it sets up standards which are applied in a neutral manner to formally equal parties. Questions of inequality and power may effect the capacity of those parties to engage effectively in legal reasoning. Gilligan on constructing moral problems in relation to gender has opened up a striking argument about the possible masculinity of the very process of legal reasoning.[32] The importance of challenging the conventional legal methodology helps to legitimately question the fundamental instutionalized legal reasoning processes which impact upon society. Finally, feminist methodology continually asks what is known as ‘the woman question’, investigating the nature of law through probing and recognizing female events which the law regulates in society. K.T Bartlett elaborated on the ‘woman question’ in Feminist Legal Methods[33] to mean ‘how the law fails to take into account the experiences and values that seem more typical of women than men or how existing legal standards and concepts might disadvantage women.’ Secondly, female practical reasoning stemming from contextual investigation is used to highlight the fundamental differences between people, and recognizes the value of the disenfranchised in society. Freeman suggests female practical reasoning is an interpretative approach[34] also used by the critical legal methods. Such influence means the interpretative approach is drawn on to ‘emancipate and uncover aspects of society especially ideologies that maintain the status quo by restri cting or limiting groups access to the means of gaining knowledge.’[35] Thirdly, through the tactic of ‘conscious raising,’ sharing and increasing individual awareness of the female life experience is a tool for feminists. Such ‘conscious raising’ enables the exploration of social constructs while challenging the objective truth exhibiting itself as ‘law and the criteria for legal legitimacy.’[36] The validity of such characteristic feminist methodological traits discussed by Bartlett reveals ‘things which traditional legal methods ignore.’[37] Such an approach places emphasis on the idea of: Positionality a stance that acknowledges the existence of empirical truths, values and knowledge. Knowledge is situated in social contexts and reflects different experiences. Thus they key lies in the effort to extend ones’ limited perspective.[38] This methodological standpoint is used as a launch pad by feminists to comprehensively consider different types of knowledge. Through experimental and far-reaching scrutiny, feminist scholars believe such a methodology will lead to heightened responsiveness achieving the goal of self determination and change in society. Freeman argues this point by stating an ‘improved methodology will result in a better understanding and ability to urge transformative practice.’[39] Categories of feminist legal thought Within feminist jurisprudence, there are many theoretical branches focusing on different conceptual points by academic feminists. Freeman identifies four main categories within feminist jurisprudence which have discussed extensive aspects of law’s relationship to the female gender in society. For example Liberal, Radical, Cultural and Postmodern approaches to feminist legal thought have provided thought provoking and powerful examinations of how women can be affected by law. Such diverse inquiries also investigate the consequences this has for female gender identity and socialized power relations. All theories are important as particular writers under each category discuss very real topical legal subjects which the reader can relate to. Examples of legal topics discussed by feminist scholars For example the legal subjects of rape, domestic violence, and harassment have been examined under English case law. R v. R (1991) has been a notable case for radical feminist attention in discussing the laws of rape, which attempt to protect women from sexual violence within and outside marriage. Feminists look at such emotive topics in order to place critical attention on women’s legal rights as citizens, examining the context of situations associated with the female experience. It can be suggested, a crucial aim of such discourse in not only theoretical, but represents genuine pragmatism to produce change which prevents rape head on,[40] and alters traditional ingrained conceptions which permeate gender relations in society. For example, rape should not be conceptualized as a phenomenon female victims should ‘have to deal with trying to avoid’ but infact it should be reformulated as an act which men must prevent.[41] It can be argued, it is imperative for femin ist legal scholars to continue to question how we view issues of sexual violence and critically assess how laws might unintentionally reinforce negative male values against women. A second area of feminist legal analysis is concentrated on the notion of equality for the sexes. Laws regulating pension retirement ages and equally pay opportunities under labour laws have been an issue within liberal feminism. Aspects of inequality between the sexes have been discussed using the differences in pay opportunities between the genders, and the existence of the glass ceiling in economic corporate structures. Such examples showing the range of analysis feminist legal thought pursues, demonstrates how resourceful the discipline is. Further more feminist thinking can provide distinct and logical investigations of previously unexplored areas of law. Black letter law, statutory legislation and rules effecting social relations and power structures have been exposed by feminists questioning the nat ure of legal rules upon female social existence. In this respect, feminist aims of uncovering the patriarchal aspects of the legal system increase awareness and help to establish necessary debates challenging the current condition of legal structures. This essay will now discuss some of the theoretical contributions of liberal, radical, and cultural feminist thought to legal theory. Feminist responses to Liberal theories This essay believes analysis of equality and earlier liberal theories have provided a valuable contribution to legal analysis. The work of Cain[42] and Lacey both examined models of equality in a legal environment. Liberals believe in the autonomous rational individual and minimal state involvement with private agents, which theoretically displaces gender differences. It suggests all humans are equal on the basis of possessing free will. Liberal feminism is rooted in the belief that women as well as men are right bearing autonomous human beings. Rationality, individual choice, equal rights and equal opportunities are central concepts for liberal political theory. Liberal feminism building on these concepts argues that women are just as rational as men and those women should have equal opportunities with men to exercise their right to make rational self interested choices. [43] Cain directly challenges established libertarian thought, arguing it is not the point ‘ to make women into men but expand the possibilities for female life experience by freeing women from the limitations of the male constructed category of â€Å"women† if she so chooses.’[44] Nicola Lacey extends this line of argument by examining the institutional limitations which are placed on women. This is known as the public and private sphere which effects power relations between men and women. The private spheres of life, such as family domestic life are contrasted to male dominated areas of public life such as in employment. Freeman argues ‘family is seen as beyond the control of the state, as power is deemed to be in the public arena while power relations in the domestic sphere can be ignored.’[45] Lacey raises an important theoretical point, questioning the extent to which the state should legitimately intervene into the private realm, especially in the co ntext of domestic violence and sexual abuse within family relations. It is argued the state should favor a pro interventionist policy in such cases even if it goes against traditional liberal values infringing on individual civil liberties and private autonomy. Thus, Lacey argues the ‘ideology of the public and private allows the government to clean it’s hands of any responsibility for the state of the private world and depoliticizes the disadvantages which may spill over the divide, affecting the position of the privately disadvantaged.’[46] Lacey argues the language of public and private spheres helps to support the status quo of pre existing power relations. For example, in the case of domestic violence the victims are ignored, resulting with ‘women being depoliticized and marginalized.’[47] It is suggested by Freeman that women’s injuries are ‘often not recognized by public legal culture’[48] such as in prosecutions which invo lve Battered Women’s Syndrome, and the application of provocation and self defense in criminal prosecutions. Olsen suggests the lack of state intervention is itself ‘a political act confirming the status quo and affirming the public private power relations.’[49] Such powerful discussions of feminist thought applied to legal analysis shows how traditional theories can be persuasively challenged from the feminist perspective to encourage new degrees of awareness and dialogue. Radical ‘identity’ theories Radical feminist thought is voiced by Mackinnon[50], claiming the dominant official voice is that of the male. It is suggested that the only significant distinction between the sexes is inequality. It is a patriarchal society where socio – legal structures facilitate the entire oppression and exploitation of women by men. Law is viewed to perpetuate the imbalance of power representing ‘a particularly potent source and badge of legitimacy’ which is systematically geared to enable male domination. Radical theories are controversial as they argue that dominance within power relations is central to accurately voicing the ‘authentic feminist approach.’[51] Such theories can be criticized for being defeatist as it implies that ‘inherent masculinity of the law can not be changed by increasing women’s entry into the structures of the legal system or by incorporating female values into its rules and processes.’[52] Therefore, laws aimed at abolishing discrimination and establishing equality in the workplace is deemed ‘futile’ in attempting to realistically alter the status of women. Logically the theory follows, if the law is fundamentally male orientated then its apparent objectivity and ‘equality for all persons’ is a cruel myth promoting a ‘false consciousness’ among women who believe they are regarded equally under law. Harris suggests that radical feminist legal theory believes only in the validity of exposing the ‘systematic stereotyping and denigration of women’[53]. Only through the broad methods of conscious raising will true social freedom grow, overcoming patriarchal structures as female self awareness of their own oppression is enhanced. Criticism of radical theories It is important to note such radical feminist legal theories have been ferociously criticized by those of difference and equivalence feminism. For example academics such as Cornell[54] specifically attack Mackinnon for conceptualizing female experience as a form of sexually passive victimhood. Secondly, Harris[55] criticizes radical feminist thought for over generalizing the suggestion that female dominance is the only universal experience encountered by women. Furthermore, is it incorrect to characterize the law as male, since discrimination is not limited to gender. It can apply to race which can affect both men and women. Cornell attacks Mackinnon’s conclusion that the distinctive female values are simply a social construct formulated within the confines of the male dominated system. Therefore they are not truly feminine values per se. Cornell strongly criticizes Mackinnon’s reclamation of tough language to argue the point that women are degraded for example, in porn ography as ‘passive receptacles’ in intercourse. [56] Cornell believes such ‘militant anti utopianism, is the inevitable expression or her argument that there is only one self-enclosed, self-perpetuating reality for women’[57] that of male domination. Cornell contends that the sexes are different, and this must be recognized to encourage positive conceptions of sexual difference. She argues it is possible to maintain equality but also remain different and embrace the existence of womanhood which is rejected by the radical theorists. Such internal factionalism within the movement of legal feminist thought, it can be suggested reflects negatively on the discipline in terms of promoting a coherent and distinctive approach to the legal field. But such disagreements are ultimately reflective of the extensive nature of feminist thought in tackling the legal field. Cultural feminist theory It can be suggested cultural feminist theory, especially exhibited in the work of Gilligan[58] has provided a distinctive but divisive legal analysis of law. In Gilligan’s difference feminism, the writer argues constructs of morality are formed at an early age and are crucially gender orientated, thus specific to males and females in different ways. Difference feminism has created an alternative paradigm assessing male and female social structures. Gilligan suggests women focus on an ‘ethics of care’ instead of the male ‘ethics of justice’. An ethics of care is argued to stress the values of